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LI  BR  ARY 

OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY   OF   CALIFORNIA. 

GIKT    OK 


GRAMMAR 


FOR    COMMON    SCHOOLS 


BY 


B.    F.   TWEED,   A.M. 

LATE   SUPERVISOR    IN    THE    BOSTON    SCHOOLS 


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BOSTON 
LEE   AND   SHEPARD,   PUBLISHERS 

10   MILK  STREET 
1886 


COPYRIGHT,  1886, 
BY    B.    F.    TWEED. 


ELECTROTYPED  AND   PRINTED 

BY   RAND,   AVERY,   AND    COMPANY, 

BOSTON. 


PREFACE. 


IN  preparing  this  elementary  grammar,  it  is  assumed  that 
pupils,  before  using  it,  have  been  trained  in  the  primary 
schools  and  the  lower  classes  of  the  grammar  schools,  to 
use  language,  both  oral  and  written,  in  simple  stories  and 
descriptions,  with  considerable  facility,  and  with  general 
correctness. 

In  the  lessons  that  precede  the  study  of  grammar,  the 
attention  of  pupils  has  m^  been  called,  except  incidentally, 
to  the  structure  of  sentences,  but  directed  mainly  to  telling 
as  plainly  as  they  can  what  they  know  about  the  subject. 

The  teacher's  part  in  these  exercises  is  to  aid  the  pupil 
in  understanding  what  he  is  to  talk  or  write  about,  and  to 
suggest  by  questions,  or  otherwise,  a  natural  arrangement. 

Of  course,  the  most  common  grammatical  errors  have 
been  corrected  by  appeals  to  the  ear,  rather  than  by  any 
rules  of  grammar.  A  few  general  directions  have  also  been 
given  as  to  the  proper  use  of  capitals,  punctuation- marks, 
etc.  This,  however,  is  not  the  study  of  grammar. 

In  the  study  of  grammar,  language  becomes  the  object 
of  study  and  investigation. 

We  take  the  sentence,  —  the  only  form  of  words  express- 
ing a  complete  thought,  —  and  analyze  it  into  its  elements 


IV  PREFACE. 

according  to  the  part  that  each  performs  in  expressing  the 
thought.  These  elements  into  which  all  discourse  may  be 
resolved,  we  call  the  parts  of  speech. 

Then  the  relation  of  the  elements  in  a  sentence  must  be 
known  in  order  to  determine  the  meaning. 

In  many  cases,  the  arrangement  furnishes  the  only  means 
of  determining  the  relation  of  words  and  other  elements  of 
the  sentence.  In  others,  the  relation  is  shown  by  inflec- 
tions, auxiliaries,  or  connectives. 

Hence,  in  addition  to  the  elements,  —  arrangement,  con- 
struction, inflection,  and  its  substitutes  are  proper  subjects 
of  grammatical  study. 

In  presenting  these  several  departments  of  grammar,  I 
have  taken  advantage  of  the  pupils'  knowledge  of  language 
acquired  by  use;  in  many  cases  simply  formulating  and 
naming  principles  practically  learned  in  previous  exercises. 

It  has  been  my  endeavor,  also,  to  develop  the  principle 
by  illustration  before  assigning  the  technical  name  :  and  to 
exclude  all  technical  names  not  founded  on  grammatical 
distinctions. 

Our  language  has  been  called  a  "grammarless  language." 
While  this  is  not  true,  as  it  would  imply  that  it  has  no  prin- 
ciples of  construction,  it  will  be  admitted,  that,  in  parting 
with  so  many  of  the  inflections  of  the  synthetic  languages 
on  which  our  grammars  have  been  modelled,  it  has  become 
to  a  great  extent  logical. 

The  general  grammatical  facts  remaining,  I  have  tried  to 


PREFACE.  V 

state  as  simply  as  possible ;  and  I  believe  they  are  sufficient 
to  explain  the  construction  of  language  as  used  by  our  best 
speakers  and  writers. 

Idiomatic  expressions,  requiring  a  knowledge  of  the  his- 
tory of  the  language  to  explain,  as  well  as  difficult  and 
doubtful  constructions,  are  referred  to  in  the  Appendix,  to 
be  used  at  the  discretion  of  the  teacher.  It  is  believed, 
however,  that  the  pupil  should  be  thoroughly  grounded  in 
the  general  principles  of  grammar,  before  being  introduced 
to  the  unusual  and  difficult  application  of  these  principles. 

A  form  of  analysis  sufficient  to  show  the  relation  of  sub- 
ject, predicate,  and  modifiers,  in  simple,  compound,  and 
complex  sentences,  is  given,  without  requiring  a  strict  adher- 
ence to  it.  It  may  be  modified  at  the  pleasure  of  the 
teacher. 

It  is  believed  that  the  use  of  oral  and  written  language  in 
explaining  the  construction  of  sentences  is  by  no  means  an 
unprofitable  exercise. 

This  grammar  has  been  prepared  at  the  request  and  with 
the  assistance  of  Mr.  R.  C.  Metcalf,  Supervisor  of  Language 
and  Grammar  in  the  Boston  public  schools. 

Obligations  to  Mr.  L.  J.  Campbell,  for  many  valuable  sug- 
gestions, are  gratefully  acknowledged. 

B.  F.  T. 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS. 


PART     I. 

PAGE. 
THE  SENTENCE 5 

KINDS  OF  SENTENCES  (EXERCISE) 6 

SUBJECT  AND  PREDICATE      .        •  * 7 

EXERCISES 7,  8,  9 

NOUNS,  VERBS  (EXERCISE) 10 

SIMPLE  AND  ENLARGED  SUBJECTS  AND  PREDICATES  (EXERCISE),  n 

PERSONAL  PRONOUNS  (EXERCISE  I.) 12 

PERSONAL  PRONOUNS  (EXERCISE  II.) 13 

PERSONAL  PRONOUNS  (EXERCISE  III.) 14 

ADJECTIVES  (EXERCISES) 15 

ARTICLES  (EXERCISE) 16 

ADVERBS  (EXERCISES) 17 

PHRASES 18 

PREPOSITIONS 19 

EXERCISE  ON  PHRASES 20 

CONJUNCTIONS 20,  21 

COMPOUND  SENTENCES 21 

RELATIVE  PRONOUNS 22,  23 

CLAUSES 23,  24 

COMPLEX  SENTENCES  (EXERCISE) 24 

SUMMARY  OF  PARTS  OF  SPEECH 25 

THE  SAME  WORD  PERFORMING  THE  OFFICE  OF  DIFFERENT  PARTS 

OF  SPEECH 25,  26 

EXERCISE 26 

CO-ORDINATE,  SUBORDINATE,  AND  CORRESPONDING  CONJUNCTIONS,      26 

i 


2  CONTENTS. 

PART    II. 

PAGE. 

CLASSES  OF  NOUNS  (EXERCISE) 27 

PERSON 28 

NUMBER 28,  29 

EXERCISE 29,  30 

GENDER  (EXERCISE) 30,  31 

CASE  (EXERCISE) 31,  32 

DECLENSION  OF  PERSONAL  PRONOUNS 33 

EXERCISE  ON  PERSONAL  PRONOUNS 34 

COMPOUND  PERSONAL  PRONOUNS  (EXERCISE)  .        .        .  -34 

RELATIVE  PRONOUNS  (DECLENSION^) 35 

EXERCISE  ON  RELATIVE  PRONOUNS    .  36 

COMPOUND  RELATIVE  PRONOUNS  (EXERCISE)       '.        .      '.        .          36 

INTERROGATIVE  PRONOUNS  (EXERCISE) 37 

VERBS,  MODE 38 

EXERCISE  ON  MODE       . 39 

THE  INFINITIVE. .        .    39,  40 

PARTICIPLES    . 40,  41 

TENSE  (EXERCISE)      .  .        .  .        .        .     41,  42,  43 

CLASSES  OF  VERBS'.        .  .        .      '. 43 

REGULAR  AND  IRREGULAR        . 43,  44 

TRANSITIVE  AND  INTRANSITIVE    .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .      44 

ACTIVE"  AND  PASSIVE  VOICE 44 

EXERCISE          .        .        .        .      ".        . 44 

AUXILIARY  VERBS       . 45 

CONJUGATION  OF  THE  VERB  "LOVE" 45,  46,  47,  48 

THE'INFINITIVE  .        .       '.        .".".' 48 

CONJUGATION  OF  THE  VERB  "BE"      .        .        .        .      '.        .       49,  50 

THE  PROGRESSIVE  FORM  (EXERCISE) 51 

THE  PASSIVE  VOICE  (EXERCISE) 52 

PERSON  AND  NUMBER  AS  COMMONLY  APPLIED  TO  VERBS            .          53 
COMPARISON  OF  ADJECTIVES  AND  ADVERBS       .        .        .        .  54 

ADJECTIVES  IRREGULARLY  COMPARED    .        .        .        .                .          55 
PRONOMINAL  ADJECTIVES 55 


CONTENTS. 


PART     III. 

SYNTAX-  PACE. 

CONSTRUCTION  AND  ARRANGEMENT 56 

RULE    i.    SYNTAX  OF  THE  SUBJECT 56,  57 

RULE    2.  SYNTAX  OF  THE  PREDICATE  ......          57 

RULE    3.  SYNTAX  OF  ADJECTIVES  AND  PARTICIPLES     .        .        57,  58 

RULE    4.    SYNTAX  OF  ADVERBS 58 

RULE    5.    APPOSITION    . 58,  59 

RULE    6.  INTRANSITIVE  AND  PASSIVE  VERBS       ....          59 

RULE    7.    THE  POSSESSIVE  CASE 59 

RULE    8.  THE  OBJECTIVE  CASE  AFTER  TRANSITIVE  VERBS      .          59 

RULE    9.  THE  OBJECTIVE  CASE  AFTER  PREPOSITIONS   ...      60 

RULE  10.  SYNTAX  OF  AN  INFINITIVE  PHRASE     ....          60 

RULE  ii.    NOUNS  USED  INDEPENDENTLY 60 

RULE  12.    AGREEMENT  OF  PRONOUNS 60 

RULE  13.    SYNTAX  OF  PREPOSITIONS 61 

RULE  14.    SYNTAX  OF  CONJUNCTIONS 61 

RULE  15.    INTERJECTIONS     .        .        .        . 61 

PUNCTUATION. 

DEFINITION.  —  CHARACTERS  USED 62 

THE  PERIOD.    THE  INTERROGATION  POINT.    THE  EXCLAMATION 

POINT 62,  63 

THE  COMMA 63,  64 

THE  SEMICOLON 64,  65 

THE  COLON 65 

THE  DASH 65,  66 

USE  OF  CAPITALS       . 66,  67,  68 

PART     IV. 

TABLE  OF  IRREGULAR  PLURALS,  FOR  REFERENCE    ...        69,  70 

GENDER  (TABLE) 7°,  71 

TABLE  OF. IRREGULAR  VERBS,  FOR  REFERENCE,  72,  73,  74,  75,  76,  77,  78 


4  CONTENTS. 

PAGE. 
EXERCISES  ON  MODES  AND  TENSES 79,  80 

PROPER  USE  OF  RELATIVE  PRONOUNS  (EXERCISE)  ...  80,  81 
SIMPLE,  COMPOUND,  AND  COMPLEX  SENTENCES  .  .  .  .  82,  83 

EXPANDING  WORDS  INTO  PHRASES 83,  84 

EXPANDING  WORDS  AND  PHRASES  INTO  CLAUSES  ...  84 
CONTRACTION  OF  COMPLEX  INTO  SIMPLE  SENTENCES  .  .  86,  86 
CONTRACTION  OF  COMPOUND  SENTENCES  INTO  COMPLEX  .  .  86,  87 
SIMPLE  SENTENCES  UNITED  TO  FORM  COMPOUND  SENTENCES  88,  89 

INVERSION 89,  90,  91 

COMPOUND  SUBJECT  (EXERCISE) 92,  93 

METHODS  OF  ANALYSIS 94,  95,  96,  97,  98,  99,  100 

SUGGESTIVE  QUESTIONS  (EXAMPLE) 100,  101 

APPENDIX. 

REMARKS    ON    THE    INDICATIVE,    POTENTIAL,    AND    IMPERATIVE 

MODES 103 

THE  SUBJUNCTIVE  MODE 104 

TENSE       . 104 

SEQUENCE  OF  TENSES 105 

VERBS  HAVING  TWO  OBJECTS 105 

"NEED"  AND  "DARE,"  "NEEDS"  AS  AN  ADVERB  ...  106 
"METHINKS,"  "HAD  AS  LIEF,"  "HAD  RATHER,"  ETC.  .  .  106,  107 
THE  ANGLO-SAXON  INFINITIVE.  THE  DATIVE,  OR  GERUNDAL 

FORM 107,  108 

"THE  HOUSE  is  BUILDING,"  OR  "BEING  BUILT"?       .        .        .         108 

IS    "AS"    AFTER   "SUCH"    AND    "MANY"    A    RELATIVE    PRONOUN?      .       log 

"Two  FIRST"  AND  "FIRST  TWO" 109,  no 

"'THE'  MORE, 'THE'  BETTER" no 

"WHAT  WITH" no 

THE  COMPARISON  OF  TWO  THINGS no,  in 

WHEN   TO    USE   AN   ADJECTIVE,  AND  WHEN  AN   ADVERB,   AFTER 

CERTAIN  VERBS in 

"SHALL"  AND  "WILL" 112 

ENDING  A  SENTENCE  WITH  A  PREPOSITION      ....     112,  113 


GRAMMAR  FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS, 


PART  I. 

THE    SENTENCE. 

1.  We  express  our  thoughts  in  language,  by  using 
words  in  such  a  way  as  to  make  sense. 

A  spoken  word  is  a  simple  sound  or  a  combina- 
tion of  sounds,  suggesting  an  idea. 

A  written  or  printed  word  is  a  letter  or  a  com- 
bination of  letters,  suggesting  an  idea. 

We  can  form  ideas  of  material  objects ;  as,  a  stone, 
a  flower,  water. 

We  can  also  form  ideas  of  things  which  exist  as 
objects  of  thought,  though  they  cannot  be  perceived 
by  the  senses ;  as,  anger,  goodness,  love,  joy,  virtue, 
vice. 

When  we  have  an  idea  of  a  thing,  we  commonly 
think  about  it  with  reference  to  some  other  idea  to 
which  it  is  related.  If  we  have  an  idea  of  birds, 
and  an  idea  of  flying,  we  may  combine  the  ideas  in 
a  thought,  and  express  it  by  the  statement,  "  Birds 
fly." 

5 


6  THE    SENTENCE. 

Two  or  more  words  are  required  to  express  a 
thought ;  and  a  thought  expressed  in  words  is  called 
a  sentence. 

KINDS    OF    SENTENCES. 

2.  When  the  sentence  tells  or  declares  something, 
it  is  a  declarative  sentence;  as,  Birds  fly.  The 
dog  runs.  The  girl  laughs. 

When  the  sentence  commands  or  entreats,  it  is 
an  imperative  sentence;  as,  Come  here.  Make 
haste.  Let  me  go.  Do  study  your  lesson. 

When  the  sentence  asks  a  question,  it  is  an 
interrogative  sentence;  as,  Do  birds  fly?  Are 
you  hungry  ?  Can  you  read  ? 

When  the  sentence  expresses  emotion,  or  feeling, 
it  is  an  exclamatory  sentence ;  as,  What  a  pleas- 
ant day  it  is  !  How  cold  it  is  ! 

EXERCISE. 

Tell  whether  each  of  the  following  sentences  is  declarative, 
imperative,  interrogative,  or  exclamatory. 

(1)  Man  is  mortal.  (5)  Study,  boys. 

(2)  Is  man  mortal  ?  (6)  Run,  Fido. 

(3)  Iron  is  a  metal.  (7)  Do  boys  like  to  skate  ? 

(4)  Is  iron  a  metal  ?  (8)  How  sweetly  it  sings  ! 

(9)  A  pretty  bluebird  flew  to  the  apple-tree. 


THE    SENTENCE. 


SUBJECT    AND    PREDICATE. 


3.  A  sentence  may  be  divided  into  two  parts.  One 
part  names  and  frequently  describes  the  person  or 
thing  spoken  of,  and  is  called  the  subject. 

The  other  part  tells  or  declares  something  about 
the  subject,  and  is  called  the  predicate. 

In  the  sentence,  A  rickety  old  wagon  carried  us  to 
the  campy  "  A  rickety  old  wagon  "  is  the  subject,  and 
"carried  us  to  the  camp"  is  the  predicate. 

EXERCISE    I. 

Tell  the  subject  and  predicate  in  each  of  the  following  sentences. 

(1)  Two  large  black  horses  ran  away  with  the  coach. 

(2)  The  carriage  moved  slowly  up  the  hill. 

(3)  Charles  wrote  a  letter  to  me. 

EXERCISE   II. 

What  is  the  subject  in  the  first  of  the  following  sentences? 
Why  ?  What  is  the  predicate  ?  Why  ?  In  the  second  ?  The  third  ? 
The  fourth  ?  The  fifth  ? 

(  i  )  A  clock  stopped. 

(2)  An  old  clock  stopped. 

(3)  An  old  clock  stopped  suddenly. 

(4)  An   old   clock    that   stood   in   a   farmer's   kitchen, 
stopped  suddenly. 

(5)  An   old   clock    that   stood   in   a   farmer's   kitchen, 
stopped  suddenly  one  summer  morning. 


8  THE    SENTENCE, 

QUESTIONS. 

1 i )  What  is  the  word  clock  used  for  in  these  sentences  ? 
Ans.  To  name  the  thing  spoken  of. 

( 2 )  What  is  the  word  stopped  used  for  ? 
Ans.  To  declare  something  about  the  clock. 

(3)  What  is  the  word  ^///used  for? 

Ans.  To  describe  the  clock  with  regard  to  age. 

(4)  What  is  the  word  suddenly  used  for? 
Ans.  To  tell  how  it  stopped. 

(5)  What  does  in  the  farmer's  kitchen  tell? 
Ans.  It  tells  where  it  stood. 

(6)  What  does  one  summer  morning  tell? 
Ans.  It  tells  when  it  stopped. 

EXERCISE   III. 

Tell  the  subject  and  predicate  of  each  of  the  following  sentences. 

1 i )  The  cold  winds  blew  fiercely  against  the  house    on 
the  hill. 

(2)  The  children  at  the  farmhouse  sat  on  the  front  door- 
steps a  long  time  in  the  evening. 

(3)  The  beautiful  snow  falls  gently  from  the  sky. 

(4)  Men  of  sense  act  in  a  foolish  manner  sometimes. 

QUESTIONS. 

In  the  sentences  given  above,  what  are  the  following  words  and 
groups  of  words  used  for? 

( i )  winds  ;  blew  ;  cold  ;    fiercely  ;   against   the   house  ; 
on  the  hill." 


THE    SENTENCE.  9 

(2)  children  ;  sat ;  at  the  farmhouse ;  on  the  front  door- 
steps ;  a  long  time  ;  in  the  evening. 

(3)  snow;  falls;  beautiful;  gently;  from  the  sky. 

(4)  men ;  act ;  of  sense  ;  in  a  foolish  manner  ;  sometimes. 

EXERCISE   IV. 

Tell  the  subject  and  predicate  of  each  of  the  following  sentences. 

1 i )  Old  Christmas,  with  the  snowy  hair  and  ruddy  face, 
had  done  his  duty  that  year  in  the  noblest  fashion. 

(2)  The  complaints  of  the  old  man  excited  the  indig- 
nation of  the  bystanders. 

(3)  Over  the  little  shelf  was  a  picture  of  Sarah's  grand- 
mother. 

(4)  A  man  with  a  bundle  of  straw  for  my  bed  led  me 
through  a  dark,  narrow  passage,  into  a  small  room. 

(5)  The  gray-haired  old  man  talked  much  about  Latin 
and  Greek. 

(6)  New  races  of  animals  rise  into  existence  with  each 
succeeding  month. 

(7)  The  man  of  virtue  and  honor  will  be  trusted. 

(8)  In  every  combination  of  circumstances,  the  man  of 
faith  discovers  some  gracious  purpose. 

(9)  The  man  of  long  experience  is  a  proper  person  to 
consult. 

Note  to  Teachers.  —  "  Questions  "  similar  to  those  given  in  the  pre- 
ceding exercises  assist  in  explaining  the  use  of  words,  and  lead  to  their 
division  into  the  parts  of  speech. 


IO  PARTS    OF   SPEECH. 

PARTS    OF    SPEECH. 

NOUNS,    VERBS. 

4.  Words  are  divided,  according  to  their  use,  into 
certain  classes,  called  parts  of  speech. 

Words  used  as  names  are  called  nouns;  as,  man, 
child,  stone,  tree,  house,  bird,  village,  goodness,  wisdom, 
duty,  pleasure. 

Words  that  assert  something  of  the  subject  of  a 
sentence  are  called  verbs.  They  may  also  be  used 
to  command,  to  entreat,  to  ask  a  question,  or  to 
express  emotion ;  as,  He  talks.  The  child  walks. 
Fishes  swim.  Trees  grow.  Do  trees  grow  ?  How 
strong  the  lion  is  !  Study,  boys.  Do  give  me  some- 
thing. 

EXERCISE. 

Select  the  nouns  and  verbs  in  the  following  sentences. 

(1)  The  robin  flew. 

(2)  Birds  build  nests  on  trees. 

(3)  John  runs  and  jumps. 

(4)  The  stream  comes  from  the  mountain. 

(5)  A  cold  wind  piled  the  snow  in  heaps. 

(6)  Wisdom  is  better  than  wealth. 

(7)  Virtue  is  the  strength  and  beauty  of  the  soul. 

(8)  The  man  had  a  good  horse,  a  good  bridle  and  sad- 
dle, spurs,  and  a  whip. 


PARTS    OF   SPEECH.  II 

SIMPLE   AND   ENLARGED    SUBJECTS   AND 
PREDICATES. 

5.  In  every  sentence  there  is  a  noun,  or  something 
that  stands  for  a  noun,  which  is  called  the  simple 
subject;  and  a  verb,  which  is  called  the  simple 
predicate:  as,  Lions  roar.  Birds  sing. 

The  simple  subject,  with  other  words  that  describe 
or  limit  it,  is  called  the  enlarged  subject. 

The  simple  predicate,  with  other  words  that  de- 
scribe or  limit  it,  is  called  the  enlarged  predicate. 

In  the  sentence,  Birds  sing,  neither  the  subject  nor  the 
predicate  is  enlarged. 

In  the  sentence,  The  beautiful  little  birds  sing  their  merry 
songs,  "  birds  "  is  the  simple  subject,  and  "  sing  "  is  the  sim- 
ple predicate.  "The  beautiful  little  birds  "  is  the  enlarged 
subject,  and  "  sing  their  merry  songs  "  is  the  enlarged  predi- 
cate. 

Note.  —  First  find  the  simple  subject  and  predicate,  and  then  the  enlarged 
subject  and  predicate.  This  is  called  analyzing  the  sentence. 

EXERCISE. 

Analyze  the  following  sentences. 

1 i )  The  boy  strolled  along  the  banks  of  the  river. 

(2)  A  great  fire  raged  in  London  in  1666. 

(3)  The  calm  shade  shall  bring  a  kindred  calm. 

(4)  The  sweet  breeze  shall  waft  a  balm  to  her  sick  heart. 

(5)  The  tall  ship  glides  gracefully  over  the  blue  water. 


12  PARTS    OF   SPEECH. 

PRONOUNS. 

6.  When  a  person  speaks  of  himself,  he  does  not 
use  his  name,  but  one  of  the  following  words  that 
stand  for  his  name,  —  /,  my,  mine,  me;  as,  /asked 
my  father  to  get  a  book,  for  me.  He  gave  me  mine. 

When  a  speaker  joins  himself  with  others,  he  uses 
one  of  these  words,  —  we,  our,  ours,  us ;  as,  We  asked 
our  mates  to  play  with  us.  The  books  are  ours. 

When  one  speaks  to  another  person  or  to  other 
persons,  he  does  not  commonly  call  them  by  name, 
but  uses  you,  your,  yours ;  as,  I  will  give  you  your 
books.  These  books  wcz  yours. 

Note. —  In  poetic  style  we  use  thou,  thy,  thine,  thee. 

EXERCISE    I. 

Select  the  words  that  stand  for  nouns  in  the  following  sentences. 

(1)  John  said,  "The  book  mother  gave  me,  I  lent  to  my 
sister." 

(2)  William  said,  "When  Mary  and  I  went  to  school, 
we  took  our  dinner  with  us." 

(3)  Boys,  ask  your  mother  if  you  may  go. 

(4)  My  son  found  your  book  in  the  street. 

(5)  William  gave  the  book  to  me,  and  I   now  give  it 
to  you. 

(6)  Thou  art  the  man  ;  the  fault  is  thine. 


PARTS    OF   SPEECH.  13 

In  speaking  of  a  male,  we  may  use  he,  his,  him,  in 
place  of  the  noun  ;  as,  The  boy  said  he  was  studying 
his  lesson  when  the  teacher  spoke  to  him. 

In  speaking  of  a  female,  we  may  use  she,  her,  hers, 
in  place  of  the  noun  ;  as,  Sarah  said  she  was  studying 
her  lesson  when  the  teacher  spoke  to  her.  The  dolls 
were  hers. 

In  speaking  of  something  neither  male  nor  female, 
we  may  use  it  or  its  in  place  of  the  noun  ;  as,  The 
house  is  large,  and  its  sunny  rooms  make  it  pleasant. 

EXERCISE   II. 

Select  the  words  that  stand  for  nouns  in  the  following  sentences. 

1 i )  John  asked  his  brother  if  he  would  lend  him  his  sled. 

(2)  The    lady   told    her   daughter   that    she    might    go 
with  her. 

(3)  The  boy  picked  up  his  book,  and  put  it  in  its  place. 


In  speaking  of  more  than  one  male,  female,  or 
thing  without  sex,  we  may  use  they,  their,  theirs, 
them,  in  the  place  of  the  noun  ;  as, 

The  gentlemen  said,  as  they  left  the  room,  they 
would  take  their  hats  with  them. 

The  ladies  said  they  would  take  their  children 
with  them. 


14  PARTS    OF   SPEECH. 

The  houses  were  pleasant,  with  their  large  rooms 
and  rich  furniture  in  them. 

These  words,  /,  my,  mine,  me,  we,  our,  ours,  us, 
you,  your,  yours,  ye,  thou,  thy,  tJiine,  tJiee,  ke,  his,  him, 
she,  her,  hers,  it,  its,  they,  their,  theirs,  them,  are 
called  pronouns,  because  they  perform  the  office 
of  nouns. 

They  are  called  personal  pronouns,  because 
they  have  different  forms  to  represent  the  person 
speaking,  the  person  spoken  to,  and  the  person 
or  thing  spoken  of. 

A  noun  or  pronoun  representing  the  person  speak- 
ing is  in  the  first  person ;  the  person  spoken  to,  in 
the  second  person  ;  and  the  person  or  thing  spoken 
of,  in  the  third  person. 

EXERCISE    III. 

Se/ect  the  personal  pronouns  in  the  following  sentences,  and  tell 
whether  they  are  in  the  first,  second,  or  third  person. 

(1)  I  saw  the  boy,  and  called  him  to  me. 

(2)  Joseph  has  some  apples,  and  will  give  them  to  you. 

(3)  Henry's  sisters  were  here  with  him. 

(4)  Annie  gave  a  ring  to    her  sister,  and  she  wore  it 
constantly. 

(5)  George  bought  the  book,  but  has  given  it  to  his 
brother. 

(6)  This  knife  is  mine,  but  you  may  take  it. 


PARTS    OF   SPEECH.  15 

(7)  They  asked  me  to  help  them. 

(8)  When  you  are  ready  to  recite  your  lesson,  you  may 
come  to  me,  and  I  will  hear  you. 

(9)  Your  pencil  is  better  than  mine  :  please  lend  it  to  me. 

(10)  "  Thy  triumph  ceased  awhile, 

And  Hope,  thy  sister,  ceased  with  thee  to  smile." 

ADJECTIVES. 

EXERCISE   I. 

7.  Tell  what  the  italicized  words  in  the  following  sentences  are 
used  for. 

(1)  He  is  an  0/c/man. 

(2)  He  lives  in  a  white  house. 

(3)  The  city  is  supplied  with  pure  water. 

(4)  Ten  men  were  elected  to  serve  on  the  committee. 

(5)  The  ocean  seems  boundless. 

A  word  used  to  describe  or  limit  the  meaning  of  a 
noun  or  pronoun  is  called  an  adjective. 

Note.  —  To  limit  does  not  necessarily  signify  to  narrow  the  meaning,  but 
to  determine  its  extent.  The  adjective  old  in  the  sentence,  "  He  is  an  old 
man,"  describes  the  man  with  regard  to  age,  or  limits  the  man  spoken  of,  to 
a  certain  class.  So  with  white,  pure,  ten,  and  boundless. 

EXERCISE    II. 

Analyze  these  sentences,  and  select  the  nouns,  verbs,  pronouns, 
and  adjectives. 

(1)  The  pupil  deserves  great  praise  for  his  industry. 

(2)  Diligent  pupils  receive  their  reward. 


1 6  FARTS    OF   SPEECH. 

(3)  The  sweet  breeze  shakes  the  green  leaves. 

(4)  Do  you  hear  the   merry  bells  peal  forth  a  joyous 
welcome  ? 

Note.  —Change  interrogative  sentences  to  declarative  before  analyzing. 

ARTICLES. 

8.  The  words,  a,  an,  and  the  are  a  kind  of  adjec- 
tives. They  are  called  articles. 

A  or  an  is  called  the  indefinite  article. 

The  is  called  the  definite  article. 

A  is  used  before  words  beginning  with  a  consonant 
sound  ;  as,  a  bird,  a  great  man,  a  unit,  suck  a  one. 

Note. —  Unit  begins  with  the  sound  of  y  (consonant).  One  begins 
with  the  sound  of  w  (consonant). 

An  is  used  before  words  beginning  with  a  vowel 
sound ;  as,  an  orange,  an  apple,  an  inkstand. 

EXERCISE. 

//?  each  of  the  following  sentences,  substitute  the  indefinite  article 
for  the  definite. 

(1)  James  read  the  lesson  from  the  history. 

(2)  After  the  hour  of  toil,  we  like  the  time  for  rest. 

(3)  William  has  learned  the  useful  art. 

(4)  The  umpire  is  chosen  for  the  game. 

(5)  The  boy  found  the  acorn  under  the  oak. 

(6)  The  honest  man  will  be  trusted. 

(7)  The  young  man  left,  the  hour  before  I  did. 

(8)  The  pupil  recited  the  lesson. 


PARTS    OF    SPEECH.  I/ 

ADVERBS. 

EXERCISE   I. 

9.   Jell  what  the  italicized  words  are  used  for  in  the  following 
sentences. 

(1)  The  man  talked  foolishly. 

(2)  The  dog  ran  here  and  there. 

(3)  The  judge  decided  carefully. 

(4)  The  clock  strikes  hourly. 

(5)  You  must  not  look  down. 

(6)  John  is  a  very  good  boy. 

(7)  The  girl  behaves  tolerably  well. 

A  word  used  to  limit  the  meaning  of  a  verb,  an 
adjective,  or  an  adverb,  is  called  an  adverb. 

EXERCISE    II. 

Analyze   the   following  sentences,  and  select  the  nouns,   verbs, 
pronouns,  adjectives,  and  adverbs. 

1 i )  A  wise  man  acts  wisely. 

(2)  A  very  wise  man  acts  very  wisely. 

(3)  Beauty  is  less  desirable  than  goodness. 

(4)  How  impatiently  the  proud  ship  tosses  ! 

(5)  Sometimes  boys  behave  foolishly. 

(6)  The  horse  ran  swiftly. 

(7)  Rich  men  should  give  liberally. 

(8)  Mother  will  soon  be  here. 

,     (9)  The  boy  behaves  very  well. 


1 8  PARTS    OF   SPEECH. 

PHRASES. 

10.    A  prudent  man  is  respected. 
A  man  of  prudence  is  respected. 

These  sentences  express  the  same  thought. 

In  the  first  sentence,  man  is  described  or  limited 
by  the  adjective  prudent. 

In  the  second  sentence,  the  words  of  prudence, 
taken  together,  perform  the  office  of  the  adjective 
prudent. 

The  sentence  was  written  properly. 

The  sentence  was  written  in  a  proper  manner. 

These  sentences  express  the  same  thought. 

In  the  first  sentence,  was  written  is  limited  by  the 
adverb  properly. 

In  the  second  sentence,  the  words  in  a  proper  man- 
ner perform  the  office  of  the  adverb  properly. 

The  sight  of  the  sun  is  pleasant. 

To  see  the  sun  is  pleasant. 

These  sentences  express  the  same  thought. 

In  the  first  sentence,  the  noun  sight  is  the  simple 
subject. 

In  the  second  sentence,  to  see  is  the  simple  subject, 
performing  the  office  of  the  noun  sight. 

Such  expressions  as  of  prudence,  in  a  proper  man- 
ner, and  to  see y  are  called  phrases.  Of  prudence  is 


PARTS    OF   SPEECH. 


an  adjective   phrase;    in   a  proper  manner  is   an 
adverbial  phrase;  and  to  see  is  a  noun  phrase. 

PREPOSITIONS. 

11.  The  word  that  connects  a  phrase  of  which  it  is 
a  part,  to  the  word  it  limits,  is  called  a  preposition, 
because  it  is  commonly  placed  before  a  limiting  word. 

The  following  words  are  commonly  prepositions, 
though  many  of  them  are  sometimes  adverbs,  or 
subordinate  conjunctions. 

beside, 

besides, 

between, 

betwixt, 

beyond, 

by, 

concerning, 

down, 

during, 

except, 

for, 

from, 

in, 


about, 

above, 

across, 

after, 

against, 

amid, 

amidst, 

among, 

amongst, 

around, 

at, 

athwart, 

before, 

behind, 

below, 

beneath, 


into, 

of, 

on, 


over, 

round, 

since, 

through, 

to, 

towards, 

under, 

underneath, 

unto, 

up, 

upon, 

with, 

within, 

without. 


PREPOSITIONAL   PHRASES. 

according  to,  instead  of,  out  of. 


20  PARTS    OF   SPEECH. 

The  following  words  are  sometimes  used  as  prep- 
ositions :  past  for  by  ;  excepting  io\:  except ;  regarding, 
respecting,  touching,  for  concerning  or  about ;  along, 
off,  till,  tmtil. 

EXERCISE. 

Select  the  adjective,  the  adverbial,  and  the  noun  phrases,  in  the 
following  sentences. 

(1)  Men  of  sense  act  with  caution. 

( 2 )  The  men  acted  with  calmness  and  with  wisdom. 

(3)  To  err  is  human.     To  forgive  is  divine. 

(4)  To  suffer  wrong  is  better  than  to  do  wrong. 

(5)  A  man  of  truth  will  be  believed. 

(6)  The  pupils  listened  with  attention. 

(7)  Days  of  happiness  pass  with  rapidity. 

(8)  A  lecture  on  history  will  be  given. 

(9)  I  saw  a  boy  in  the  street. 

(10)  The  man  was  in  this  room. 

( 1 1 )  I  saw  him  at  that  time. 

(12)  At  what  time  did  he  leave  ? 

CONJUNCTIONS. 

12.  George  went  away.     William  remained  at  home. 
These  two  sentences  may  be  united  so  as  to  form 
but  one  :  thus,  — 

George  went  away,  and  William  remained  at  home. 
George  went  away,  but  William  remained  at  home. 
George  went  away,  thotigh  William  remained  at  home. 


PARTS    OF   SPEECH.  21 

Words  used  to  connect  sentences  are  called  con- 
junctions. 

In  uniting  sentences  by  conjunctions,  we  need 
not  repeat  what  is  alike  in  each. 

EXERCISE. 

Unite  the  following  sentences  by  and  or  but,  and  do  not  repeat 
what  is  alike  in  each. 

(1)  Washington  was   a  great  man.     Washington  was  a 
good  man. 

(2)  A  prudent  man  will  commonly  succeed.     An  indus- 
trious man  will  commonly  succeed. 

(3)  The  young  lady  plays  the  piano.     The  young  lady 
cannot  sing. 

(4)  I  went  to  church.     It  was  very  cold. 

.    (5)  The  cargo  was  lost.     The  sailors  reached  the  shore. 

COMPOUND    SENTENCES. 

Sentences  formed  by  combining  independent  state- 
ments, each  of  which  makes  sense  when  standing 
alone,  are  called  compound  sentences. 

The  conjunctions  that  connect  such  statements 
are  called  co-ordinate  conjunctions. 

EXERCISE. 

Form  a  compound  sentence,  by  uniting  each  of  the  following 
couplets,  using  one  or  more  of  these  co-ordinate  conjunctions :  and, 
but,  or,  nor. 


22  PARTS    OF   SPEECH. 

1 i )  Jane  abused  her  books.    Mary  took  good  care  of  hers. 

(2)  The  river  was  wide.     The  current  was  strong. 

(3)  You  must  go  to  work.     Your  family  will  starve. 

(4)  I  do  not  fear  him.     I  do  not  avoid  him. 

RELATIVE    PRONOUNS. 

13.  I  saw  a  man.     The  man  was  going  to  New  York. 
These  sentences  may  be  united  thus  :  — 
I  saw  a  man  who  was  going  to  New  York. 

In  this  sentence,  zv/w  performs  the  office  of  a  pro- 
noun and  a  conjunction.  It  means  :  I  saw  a  man, 
and  he  was  going  to  New  York. 

James  lost  a  knife.     John  found  the  knife. 

These  sentences  may  be  united  by  which;  as, 
James  lost  a  knife,  which  John  found.  It  means : 
James  lost  a  knife,  and  John  found  it. 

This  is  the  man.     He  came  to  our  house. 

We  may  unite  these  two  sentences  by  that ;  as, 
This  is  the  man  that  came  to  our  house. 

I  saw  the  boy.     His  name  was  John. 

These  sentences  may  be  united  by  whose ;  as,  I 
saw  the  boy  whose  name  was  John. 

He  is  the  merchant.     We  bought  goods  of  him. 


PARTS    OF   SPEECH.  2$ 

These  sentences  may  be  united  by  wJiom  ;  as,  He 
is  the  merchant  of  whom  we  bought  goods. 

These  words,  who,  whose,  whom,  which,  that,  when 
used  in  this  way,  are  called  relative  pronouns. 

The  noun  or  pronoun  that  a  relative  pronoun 
stands  for,  or  relates  to,  is  called  its  antecedent, 
because  it  goes  before  the  relative  pronoun. 

EXERCISE. 

Unite  each  couplet  by  a  relative  pronoun,  and  tell  its  antecedent. 

(1)  We  lived  in  a  house.     The  house  has  been  sold. 

(2)  You  sent  for  a  book.     I  will  lend  you  the  book. 

(3)  The  man  is  my  friend.     You  saw  him  at  my  house. 

(4)  We  came  in  a  carriage.     The  carriage  went  directly 
back. 

(5)  Here  is  a  boy.     I  borrowed  his  sled. 

CLAUSES. 

A  man  who  tells  the  truth  will  be  believed. 
In  this  sentence,  who  tells  the  truth  performs  the 
office  of  the  adjective  truthful. 

I  saw  him  when  he  was  here. 

When  he  was  here  performs  the  office  of  the  adverb 
then. 

That  you  know  better,  is  certain. 


24  PARTS    OF   SPEECH. 

That  you  knoiv  better  performs  the  office  of  a  noun, 
the  fact. 

A  subordinate  statement  that  performs  the  office 
of  an  adjective,  an  adverb,  or  a  noun,  is  called  a 
clause. 

A  clause  that  performs  the  office  of  an  adjective 
is  an  adjective  clause;  one  that  performs  the  office 
of  an  adverb  is  an  adverbial  clause;  and  one  that 
performs  the  office  of  a  noun  is  a  noun  clause. 

A  clause  may  be  connected  with  the  word  on 
which  it  depends,  by  a  relative  pronoun  or  a  subordi- 
nate conjunction  ;  as,  who,  which,  that,  when,  where, 
if,  unless,  etc. 

COMPLEX   SENTENCES. 

A  sentence  that  contains  a  clause  is  a  complex 
sentence. 

EXERCISE. 

Select  the  clauses  in  the  following  sentences,  and  tell  whether 
they  are  adjective,  adverbial,  or  noun  clauses. 

1 i )  The  pupil  that  studies  will  learn. 

(2)  The  horse  ran  away  when  his  owner  left  him. 

(3)  I  know  that  he  told  the  truth. 

(4)  When  I  saw  the  man,  I  knew  him 

(5)  That  I  should  tell  the  truth,  ]    learned   from   my 
mother. 

(6)  Every  child  knows  when  vacation  begins. 


PARTS    OF    SPEECH.  2$ 

SUMMARY   OF    THE    PARTS    OF    SPEECH. 

The  parts  of  speech  include  all  the  words  that 
can  be  used  in -sentences. 

A  word  used  as  a  name  is  a  noun. 

A  word  used  instead  of  a  noun  is  a  pronoun. 

A  word  used  to  assert  is  a  verb. 

A  word  used  to  describe  or  limit  a  noun  or  pronoun 
is  an  adjective. 

A  word  used  to  describe  or  limit  a  verb,  an  adjec- 
tive, or  an  adverb,  is  an  adverb. 

A  word  placed  before  a  limiting  word  to  connect 
it  with  the  word  it  limits  is  a  preposition. 

A  word  used  to  connect  sentences  is  a  conjunction. 

A  word  used  to  imply  emotion,  without  asserting 
it,  is  an  interjection  ;  as, 

Alas  !  the  remedy  came  too  late. 

Oh  for  a  lodge  in  some  vast  wilderness  ! 

The  same  word  may  perform  the  office  of  different  parts 
of  speech. 

(1)  It  is  a  calm  day. 

(2)  There  was  a  great  calm. 

(3)  Calm  yourself. 

In  the  first  sentence,  "calm"  is  an  adjective ;  in 
the  second,  it  is  a  noun  ;  and  in  the  third,  it  is  a  verb. 


26 


PARTS    OF   SPEECH. 


1 i )  Thou  hast  beset  me  before  and  behind. 

(2)  The  man  was  before  the  fire. 

(3)  I  saw  the  man  before  he  saw  me. 

In  the  first  sentence,  "before"  is  an  adverb;  in 
the  second,  a  preposition  ;  and  in  the  third,  a  conjunc- 
tion or  a  conjunctive  adverb. 

EXERCISE. 

Make  sentences  in  which  the  following  words  are  used  as  dif- 
ferent parts  of  speech. 

Iron,  wafer,  copper,  snow,  rain,  work,  before,  after,  up, 
down. 


Co-ordinate   Conjunctions. 

Subordinate   Conjunctions. 

and,             yet, 

if,                    lest, 

or,                however, 

unless,            than, 

nor,              still, 

though,           since, 

but,              nevertheless. 

that,                because. 

Note.  —  To  give  emphasis,  nearly 

Note.  —  The   following   may   be 

^11  these  are  sometimes  preceded  by 

called    subordinate    conjunctions,    or 

corresponding  conjunctions  ;  as, 

conjunctive  adverbs. 

both  —  and, 

when,                how, 

either  —  or, 

where,               why, 

neither  —  nor, 

while,                 until, 

though  —  yet, 

before,               ere, 

whether  —  or. 

after,                 till. 

Note.  —  How,  where,  when,  why,  while,  used  interrogatively,  are  adverbs. 


CLASSES    OF   NOUNS.  2J 

PART  II. 

CLASSES    OF    NOUNS. 

The  name  of  an  individual  person  or  thing  is  a 
proper  noun;  as,  Charles^  Mary,  Boston,  London. 

Proper  nouns,  and  words  derived  from  them,  should  begin 
with  a  capital  letter;  as,  England,  English,  Englishman, 
America,  American,  Americans. 

A  name  that  may  be  applied  to  each  individual  of 
a  class  is  a  common  noun;  as,  boy,  girl,  city,  town, 
river,  mountain. 

A  common  noun  used  to  denote  a  single  object 
consisting  of  many  individuals  is  called  a  collective 
noun;  as,  army,  senate,  jury,  school. 

Note.  —  An  army  consists  of  many  soldiers ;  a  senate,  of  senators ;  a 
jury,  of  jurors ;  a  school,  of  pupils. 

EXERCISE. 

Select  the  proper  nouns,  and  words  derived  from  them,  the  com- 
mon nouns,  and  the  collective  nouns,  in  the  following  sentences. 

1 i )  Boston  is  a  large  city. 

(2)  The  English  nation  is  powerful. 

(3)  Americans  are  proud  of  their  country. 

(4)  The  jury  were  divided. 

(5)  The  senate  was  unanimous. 


28.  CLASSES    OF   NOUNS. 

PERSON. 

A  noun  used  as  the  name  of  the  speaker  is  in  the 
first  person;  when  used  as  the  name  of  the  person 
spoken  to,  it  is  in  the  second  person ;  and  when 
used  as  the  name  of  the  person  or  thing  spoken  of, 
it  is  in  the  third  person. 

Note.  —  There  is  no  change  in  the  form  of  the  noun  to  show  its  person  ; 
but  different  personal  pronouns  are  required  to  represent  the  speaker,  the 
person  spoken  to,  and  the  person  or  thing  spoken  of:  as,  — 

/  (the  speaker)  was  looking  for  my  hat.  Anna,  you  may  recite  your 
lesson.  Virtue  is  its  own  reward.  This  is  my  hat.  That  is  yours.  I  gave 
the  books  to  them. 

NUMBER. 

A  noun  is  commonly  changed  in  form  when  it  is 
used  to  denote  more  than  one  object  :  as,  boy,  boys ; 
girl,  girls  ;  man,  men  ;  house,  houses. 

A  noun  that  denotes  one  object  is  in  the  singular 
number;  a  noun  that  denotes  more  than  one  is  in 
the  plural  number. 

The  regular  plural  is  formed  by  adding  s  or  es  to 
the  singular:  as,  river,  rivers ;  tree,  trees ;  box,  boxes; 
church,  churches. 

Some  nouns  form  their  plurals  by  changing  f  or 
fe  into  ves  ;  as,  wolf,  wolves;  wife,  wives;  thief, 
thieves. 


CLASSES    OF    NOUNS.  2Q 

Nouns  ending  in  y  preceded  by  a  consonant  form 
their  plurals  by  changing  y  into  ies  ;  as,  lady,  ladies  ; 
city,  cities ;  territory,  territories. 

Some  nouns  form  their  plural  by  changing  the 
vowel  or  vowels  of  the  singular  ;  as,  man,  men  ;  goose, 
geese  ;  tooth,  teeth  ;  foot,  feet. 

Some  nouns  are  the  same  in  both  numbers ;  as, 
deer,  sJieep,  swine,  series,  species. 

Nouns  that  are  distinguished  by  quantity  instead 
of  number  have  no  plural  ;  as,  iron,  gold,  silver,  lazi- 
ness, flour,  anger. 

Some  nouns  have  no  singular ;  as,  riches,  alms, 
measles,  bellows,  scissors,  pincers, 

EXERCISE. 

Substitute  the  plural  for  the  singular,  and  the  singular  for  the 
plural,  of  each  noun  in  the  following  sentences;  and  make  such 
other  changes  as  the  sense  requires. 

(1)  The  pupil  lost  his  book. 

(2)  The  star  is  shining  upon  the  hill  and  valley. 

(3)  The  musician  played  on  a  fife. 

(4)  They  wished  to  buy  a  loaf  of  bread. 

(5)  The  bonnet  suited  the  lady. 

(6)  The  man  rode  in  a  coach. 

(7)  The  goose  hissed  at  the  children. 

(8)  I  read  the  motto  of  the  hero. 

(9)  We  were  reading  the  story  about  the  turkey. 


30  CLASSES    OF    NOUNS. 

(10)  The  men  found  knives  and  forks  on  the  tables. 
(n)   I  will  give  you  a  key  to  the  story  of  the  fairy. 

(12)  They  told  the  griefs  and  sorrows  of  their  lives. 

(13)  The  towns  were  burned  by  Tories. 

GENDER. 

The  distinction  of  male  and  female  is  called  sex. 

The  name  of  a  male  is  of  the  masculine  gender; 
as,  man,  boy,  father. 

The  name  of  a  female  is  of  the  feminine  gender; 
as,  woman,  girl,  mother. 

The  name  of  an  object  neither  male  nor  female 
is  of  the  neuter  gender;  as,  table,  book,  tree. 

The  distinction  of  sex  is  expressed : 

(1)  By  different   words;    as,   boy,    girl;    husband, 
wife ;  imcle,  aunt ;  man,  woman. 

(2)  By   words    prefixed ;    as,    man-servant,    maid- 
servant ;  male  child,  female  child ;  he-goat,  she-goat. 

(3)  By  difference  of  termination  ;  as,  abbot,  abbess ; 
emperor,  empress ;    hero,   heroine;    widower,   widow; 
adm inistrator,  adm inistratrix. 

Note.  —  The  difference  of  termination  is  made  in  comparatively  few 
nouns,  and  they  are  constantly  becoming  less. 

EXERCISE. 

In  each  of  the  following  sentences,  change  the  italicized  noun  from 
the  masculine  to  the  feminine  form,  or  from  feminine  to  masculine, 
with  other  changes  to  correspond. 


CLASSES    OF   NOUN'S.  31 

1 i )  The  man  was  earnest  in  the  cause  of  temperance. 

(2)  The  lady  was  away  from  home. 

(3)  The  judge  appointed  an  administratrix  upon  the 
estate. 

(4)  The  boy  came  to  thank  his  host. 

(5)  The  flock  had  been  in  the  charge  of  a  shepherdess. 

(6)  The  children  were  fond  of  their  brother. 

(7)  These  are  nuptial  gifts  for  the  bridegroom. 

(8)  Who  was  the  heroine  of  the  story? 

(9)  A  lonely  widower  sat  by  his  fireside. 
(10)  Who  is  the  heiress  to  the  large  estate? 

CASE. 

Case  is  a  term  used  to  denote  the  relation  which  a 
noun  or  pronoun  sustains  to  some  other  word. 

There  are  three  cases,  —  the  nominative,  the  pos- 
sessive, and  the  objective. 

The  noun  ha?r  but  one  change  (the  possessive)  to 
indicate  case.  But  some  of  the  personal  pronouns, 
and  one  of  the  relative  pronouns,  have  three  forms 
to  show  the  relations  of  subject,  object,  and  ownership 
or  possession. 

Note.  —  In  the  sentence,  "  William  sees  James,"  we  know  that  William 
is  the  subject,  simply  by  its  position.  If  the  same  words  were  arranged 
thus,  "James  sees  William,"  "James"  would  be  the  subject. 

But  in  the  sentence,  "  He  sees  him,''  the  case  of  the  pronouns  is  shown 
by  their  form.  If  it  were  written,  "  Him  he  sees,"  we  should  know  that 
"he"  is  the  subject,  from  its  form. 


32  CLASSES    OF   NOUNS. 

The  possessive  case  singular  is  formed  by  adding 
an  apostrophe  and  s  to  the  noun  ;  as,  Mary 's,  John 's, 
James 's. 

When  the  plural  ends  in  s,  the  apostrophe  only  is 
added ;  as,  boys .  When  the  plural  does  not  end  in 
s,  the  possessive  is  formed  by  adding  the  apostrophe 
and  s,  as  in  the  singular ;  as,  men 's. 

POSSESSIVE    CASE. 

Singular.         Boy's,          Man's,  Lady's,  Hero's, 

Plural.  Boys',          Men's,  Ladies',          Heroes'. 

Nouns  ending  in  ss  or  nee,  generally  take  the  apos- 
trophe only  ;  as,  "  for  conscience  sake,"  "  for  goodness' 
sake." 

EXERCISE. 

Write  the  following  sentences,  putting  the  italicized  nouns  in  the 
possessive  case. 

1 i )  The  story  was  taken  from  the  Fables  of  sEsop. 

(2)  He  is  freed  from  the  troubles  of  life. 

(3)  This  sled  belongs  to  my  brother. 

(4)  Pity  the  sorrows  of  a  poor  old  man. 

(5)  The  ways  of  wisdom  are  pleasantness. 

(6)  I  borrowed  a  book  belonging  to  Anna. 

(7)  The  point  of  an  arrow  is  sharp. 

(8)  The  points  of  the  arrows  were  broken. 

(9)  The  shawl  of  the  lady  was  handsome. 
(10)  The  bonnets  of  the  ladies  were  gay. 


PERSONAL    PRONOUNS, 


33 


PERSONAL    PRONOUNS. 

DECLENSION. 
FIRST   PERSON. 


Singular. 

Plural, 

Nominative. 

I. 

We. 

Possessive, 

My  ermine. 

Our  or  ours. 

Objective, 

Me. 

Us. 

SECOND  PERSON. 

Common  Style, 

Singular. 

Plural. 

Nominative. 

You. 

You. 

Possessive. 

Your  or  yours, 

Your  or  yours. 

Objective. 

You. 

You.- 

Poetic  Style. 

Nominative. 

Thou. 

Ye. 

Possessive. 

Thy  or  thine. 

Your  or  yours. 

Objective. 

Thee. 

You. 

THIRD  PERSON    (SINGULAR). 

Masculine,  Feminine.  Netiter. 

Nominative.  He.  She.  It. 

Possessive.  His.  Her  or  hers.         Its. 

Objective.  Him.  Her.  It. 

THIRD  PERSON  (PLURAL)  ALL  GENDERS. 

Nominative.  They, 

Possessive.  Their  or  theirs. 

Objective.  Them. 


34  PERSONAL    PRONOUNS. 

EXERCISE. 

Substitute  a  personal  pronoun  for  each  italicized  word  in  the 
following  sentences. 

(1)  Mary  read  in  Mary's  book. 

(2)  John's  sled  is  broken. 

(3)  The  man  acquired  his  property  honestly. 

(4)  Boys  are  sometimes  careless. 

(5)  I  have  noticed  carelessness  in  boys. 

(6)  This  is  the  man  whom  I  saw. 

(7)  I  gave  the  kite  to  Robert. 

(8)  Then  the  kite  was  Robert's. 

(9)  The  apples  were  ripe. 

(10)  The  boys  went  to  gather  the  apples. 

COMPOUND    PERSONAL    PRONOUNS. 

Myself,  ourselves,  yourself,  yourselves,  thyself,  him- 
self, herself,  itself,  themselves,  are  called  compound 
personal  pronouns,  and  are  used  only  in  the  nom- 
inative and  objective  cases;  as,  I  myself  did  it.  You 
wrong  yourself  .  We  cannot  sec  ourselves. 

EXERCISE. 

Supply  the  proper  compound  personal  pronoun  in  each  of  the 
following  sentences. 

1 i )  I  saw  the  man . 

(2)  We  -    -  are  to  blame. 

(3)  Thou  -    —  mayst  see. 

(4)  I  tell  you  that  which  you  -    -  do  know. 


PRONOUN. 


RELATIVE    PRONOUNS. 

A  relative  pronoun  performs  the  office  of  a  pro- 
noun and  a  subordinate  conjunction.  It  is  used  only 
in  clauses  of  complex  sentences.  As  a  pronoun,  it 
represents  a  noun  or  pronoun,  called  its  antecedent. 
As  a  subordinate  conjunction,  it  connects  the  clause 
in  which  it  stands,  with  its  antecedent.  It  is  not 
varied  in  form  on  account  of  person  and  number. 

Who  and  which  are  thus  declined  :  — 

Singular  and  Plural.  Singular  and  Plural. 
Nominative.                       who,  which, 

Possessive.  whose,  whose, 

Objective.  whom.  which. 

That  is  indeclinable. 

Who  is  applied  to  persons  ;  as,  This  is  the  boy  who 
spoke  to  me. 

Which  is  applied  to  inferior  animals  or  to  things 
without  life  ;  as,  /  paid  for  the  goods  which  were  sent 
me.  The  carriage  which  brought  us  has  returned. 

That  is  applied  both  to  persons  and  things  ;  as, 
The  man  that  was  here  has  gone.  The  house  that  was 
burned  was  insured. 

EXERCISE. 

Supply  the  proper  relative  pronoun  in  each  of  the  following 
sentences. 


36  PRONOUNS. 

1 i )  The  carriage we  came  in  has  returned. 

(2)  The  man  -    -  you  saw  was  my  friend. 

(3)  The  book I  borrowed  has  been  returned. 

(4)  I  will  gladly  loan  you  the  book you  sent  for. 

(5)  The  gentlemen company  we  expected,  did  not 

come. 

(6)  The  lady spoke  to  me  is  my  sister. 

COMPOUND    RELATIVE    PRONOUNS. 

What,  whatever,  whoever,  whichever,  or  wJiatsoever, 
whosoever,  whichsoever,  connect  clauses  like  relative 
pronouns,  but  are  used  only  when  the  antecedent  is 
omitted  ;  as,  /  knoiu  what  is  wanted.  Whosoever  will, 
may  come. 

These  words  may  be  regarded  as  implying  both 
the  antecedent  and  the  relative. 

EXERCISE. 

Substitute  a  compound  relative  for  the  italicized  words  in  the 
following  sentences. 

1 i )  You  have  done  that  which  you  should  be  sorry  for. 

(2)  Those  things  which  cannot  be  prevented  must  be 
borne  patiently. 

(3)  He  who  acts  uprightly  will  be  respected. 

(4)  The  things  which   I   brought  home,  I  gave  to  my 
brother. 

(5)  This  is  exactly  the  thing  that  was  wanted. 


PRONOUNS.  37 

(6)  We  can  have  that  which  we  prefer. 

(7)  They  stood  mourning  for  the  things  which  they  had 
lost. 

(8)  The  man  who  injures  another  is  his  own  foe. 

INTERROGATIVE    PRONOUNS. 

Who,  which,  and  what,  when  used  in  asking  ques- 
tions, are  called  interrogative  pronouns;  as,  Who 
is  this  ?  Which  is  the  house?  What  do  you  want? 

Which  and  what  are  also  used  as  interrogative 
adjectives;  as,  Which  way  did  he  go?  What  book 
have  you  been  reading? 

EXERCISE. 

• 

Supply  the  proper  interrogative  pronouns  or  adjectives  in  these 
sentences. 

1 i )  -     -  spoke  to  you  ?  rf 

(2)   did  he  say  ? 

(3)   did  you  speak  ?  . 

(4)   hat  is  this  ? 

(5)   way  did  he  go  ? 

(6)  book  will  you  take? 


38  VERBS. 

VERBS. 
MODE. 

The  manner  in  which  a  verb  is  used  is  called  its 
mode. 

There  are  four  modes, — the  indicative,  the 
potential,  the  subjunctive,  and  the  imperative. 

The  indicative  mode  is  used  to  declare  the  act 
expressed  by  the  verb  ;  as,  /  will  go.  The  boy  runs. 

The  potential  mode  is  used  to  express  possibility, 
liberty,  power,  will,  obligation,  or  necessity,  by  the 
use  of  may,  can,  must,  might,  could,  would,  or  slwuld ; 
as,  /  may  go.  The  boy  may  leave  the  room.  He  can 
go.  He  might  go.  He  could  go.  He  should  go.  He 
would  go.  He  must  go. 

The  subjunctive  mode  is  used  in  a  clause  (or 
subjoined  statement),  to  express  a  condition  ;  as,  I 
would  go  if  I  were  you. 

Note.  —  Bain  says,  "  The  verb  be  has  a  peculiar  inflection  to  express 
contingency  or  conditionality ;  it  is  the  only  real  conditional  or  subjunctive 
mode  [form]  in  English,  and  is  in  the  past  tense." 

The  present  subjunctive,  if  I  be,  if  you  be,  if  lie  be,  seems  to  be  an  ellipti- 
cal form  for  if  I  should  be,  etc.  So  is  if  he  love,  and  the  like.  (See  Bain's 
"  Higher  English  Grammar,"  p.  98.) 

The  elliptical  form  (if  I  be,  if  it  rain),  although 
formerly  in  frequent  use,  is  now  properly  used  only 
in  reference  to  future  time. 


VERBS. 


39 


Whenever  the  condition  refers  to  present  time,  the 
present  indicative  form  should  be  used ;  as,  "  If 
James  is  sick  (now),  we  must  send  for  a  doctor." 

The  imperative  mode  is  used  to  express  a  com- 
mand or  entreaty  ;  as,  Boys,  study  your  lessons.  Give 
us  this  day  our  daily  bread. 

EXERCISE. 

Tell  the  mode  of  the  italicized  verbs  in  the  following  sentences, 
and  supply  what  is  omitted  in  the  elliptical  forms. 

(1)  Napoleon  I.  died at  St.  Helena. 

(2)  Give  us  this  day  our  daily  bread. 

(3)  If  it  be  fair  to-morrow,  I  shall  go. 

(4)  Go  !  get  you  gone. 

(5)  Thou  shalt  not  steal. 

(6)  Let  us,  then,  be  up  and  doing. 

(7)  It  is  fair  weather  now,  but  it  may  rain  to-morrow. 

(8)  If  it  rain,  I  shall  not  go. 

(9)  The   humblest   painter,  let  him   be  ever  so  poor, 
thinks  he  is  an  artist. 

(10)  Whoever  thinks  a  faultless  piece  to  see, 

(i  i)    Thinks  what  ne'er  was,  nor  is,  nor  e'er  shall  be. 

THE    INFINITIVE. 

An  infinitive  is  a  form  of  the  verb  that  merely 
names  its  action. 

It  performs  the  office  of  a  noun,  and  may  be  called 
a  verbal  noun. 


40  VERBS. 

Every  verb  has  two  infinitives.  One  is  the  simple 
form  of  the  verb  ;  as,  speak,  go,  hear. 

The  simple  form  is  used  after  may,  shall,  will,  etc., 
in  forming  the  tenses  of  verbs. 

The  preposition  to  is  often  placed  before  the  simple 
infinitive,  making  a  phrase  ;  as,  (to)  see,  (to)  believe. 

The  other  form  of  the  infinitive  is  the  same  as 
that  of  the  imperfect  participle ;  as,  seeing  is  believ- 
ing. This  is  called  the  infinitive  in  ing. 

Infinitives,  though  used  as  nouns,  may  be  limited 
like  the  verbs  from  which  they  are  derived. 

In  the  sentence,  /  saiu  him  go,  "go"  is  a  simple 
infinitive.  In,  /  told  him  to  go,  "to  go"  is  an 
infinitive  phrase. 

In,  Going  is  as  easy  as  standing,  "going"  and 
" standing"  are  infinitives  \x\-ing. 

Note.  —  Bain,  in  his  "Higher  English  Grammar,1'  p.  97,  says  that, 
"  When  the  two  forms  of  the  infinitive  have  the  sense  of  purpose  or  inten- 
tion, they  are  called  gerunds  ;  as,  /  come  to  write :  ready  for  sailing :  a  house 
to  let." 

In  old  English,  the  preposition  for  was  sometimes  placed  before  the 
infinitive  phrase  (or  gerund) ;  as,  What  went  ye  out  for  to  see ?  (See 
Appendix.) 

PARTICIPLES. 

A  participle  is  a  form  of  the  verb  that  performs 
the  office  of  an  adjective,  and  may  be  called  a  verbal 
adjective. 


VERBS.  41 

There  are  two  participles, — the  imperfect  and 
the  perfect.  They  have  no  tense,  but  simply  ex- 
press incomplete  or  complete  action. 

The  imperfect  participle  always  ends  in  ing,  having 
the  same  form  as  the  infinitive  in  ing. 

The  perfect  participle  commonly  ends  in  d,  t,  or  ;/. 

Imperfect  Participle.  Perfect  Participle. 
loving,  loved, 

seeing,  seen, 

teaching.  taught. 

By  prefixing  having  to  the  perfect  participle,  we 
form  a  compound  perfect  participle;  as,  having 
loved,  having  seen,  having  taiight. 

Participles,  though  used  as  adjectives,  may  be  lim- 
ited like  the  verbs  from  which  they  are  derived, 

TENSE. 

The  verb  asserts  an  action  as  present,  past,  or 
future ;  and  also  as  complete  or  incomplete.  This 
gives  rise  to  six  tenses,  —  present,  present  perfect, 
past,  past  perfect,  future,  future  perfect. 

The  present  tense  indicates  present  time,  and 
incomplete  action,  as,  I  write ;  or  habitual  and  still 
continuing  action,  as,  I  am  writing. 

The  past  tense  indicates  past  time,  and  incom- 
plete action  ;  as,  I  wrote,  I  was  writing. 


42  VERBS. 

The  present  perfect  tense  indicates  an  action 
completed  at  the  present  time;  as,  I  have  written,  I 
have  been  writing. 

The  past  perfect  tense  indicates  an  action  com- 
pleted at  some  past  time ;  as,  /  had  written,  I  had 
been  writing. 

The  future  tense  indicates  future  time  and  in- 
complete action  ;  as,  /  shall  write,  I  shall  be  writing. 

The  future  perfect  tense  indicates  an  action  to 
be  completed  at  some  future  time;  as,  I shall  have 
written,  I  shall  have  been  writing. 

EXERCISE   I. 

Tell  the  tense  of  the  italicized  verbs  in  these  sentences. 

1 i )  William  studies  his  lessons  every  day.     He  is  study- 
ing now. 

(2 )  William  studied  his  lessons  yesterday.    He  was  study- 
ing when  I  saw  him. 

(3)  William  has  studied  his  lessons  to-day.     He  has  been 
studying  all  day. 

(4)  William  had  studied  his  lessons  before  he  came  to 
school. 

(5)  William  had  been  studying  his  lessons  before  I  met 
him. 

(6)  William  will  study  to-morrow.     William  will  be  study- 
ing to-morrow. 


VERBS.  43 

(7)  William  will  have  studied  before  he  recites. 

(8)  William   will  have   been   studying  an   hour   before 
recitation. 

EXERCISE   II. 

Supply  the  proper  tense  of  the  verb  read  in  each  of  the  following 
sentences, 

(1)  The  boy now.     He at  the  present  time. 

(2)  The  boy to-morrow.     He to-morrow. 

(3)  The  boy yesterday.     He yesterday. 

(4)  The  boy before  I  saw  him.     He before  I 

saw  him. 

(5)  The  boy before  this  time.     He  till  the 

present  time. 

(6)  The  boy before  to-morrow  morning.     He 

before  to-morrow  morning. 

CLASSES    OF   VERBS. 

Verbs  are  divided  with  regard  to  form,  into  two 
classes,  —  regular  and  irregular. 

A  regular  verb  forms  its  past  tense  of  the  indica- 
tive mode,  and  it's  perfect  participle,  by  adding  ed  to 
the  simple  form ;  or  d  only,  when  the  verb  ends  in  e  : 
as, 

Present.  Past.  Perfect  Participle. 

play,  played,  played, 

love.  loved.  loved. 


44  VERBS. 

Verbs  that  do  not  form  their  past  tense  and  per- 
fect participle  by  adding  ed,  or  d  when  the  verb  ends 
in  et  are  irregular;  as, 

Present.  Past.  Perfect  Participle. 

see,  saw,  seen, 

teach,  taught,  taught, 

forget,  forgot,  forgotten  or  forgot. 

A  verb  which  can  be  used  in  but  part  of  the  modes 
and  tenses  is  a  defective  verb;  as,  qnoth,  ought. 

TRANSITIVE   AND   INTRANSITIVE. 

A  verb  is  called  transitive  when  it  requires  a 
noun  or  pronoun  as  the  direct  object  of  its  action  ; 
as,  James  sees  William  (or  /«';;/.) 

A  verb  is  called  intransitive  when  it  does  not  re- 
quire a  noun  or  pronoun  in  the  objective  case ;  as, 
James  runs. 

Note.  —  Most  verbs  may  be  used  transitively  or  intransitively ;  as,  The 
man  sees  the  boy  (or  him).  Here,  sees  is  transitive.  But  in  the  sentence, 
The  man  sees  clearly  (meaning  he  is  not  blind),  sees  is  intransitive. 

ACTIVE    AND    PASSIVE    VOICE. 

Transitive  verbs  may  be  used  in  two  ways,  to 
express  the  same  thought,  called  the  active  and 
passive  voice. 

The  active  voice  represents  the  subject  as  the 
actor;  as,  James  sees  William. 


VERBS.  45 

The  passive  voice  represents  the  subject  as  the 
person  or  thing  acted  upon;  as,  William  is  seen 
by  James. 

EXERCISE. 

Change  the  active  to  the  passive  voice  in  these  sentences. 

1 i )  My  father  built  a  house. 

(2)  The  boy  broke  the  window. 

(3)  The  stabler  lets  horses. 

(4)  The  lady  rang  the  bell.  * 

(5)  The  legislature  makes  laws. 

(6)  Lee  and  Shepard  published  the  book. 

(7)  My  father  told  me  the  story. 

(8)  I  heard  a  loud  noise. 

AUXILIARY   VERBS. 

The  different  modes  and  tenses  are  formed  (with 
one  exception)  by  the  help  of  one  of  these  words  : 
do,  does,  did,  have,  has,  had,  shall,  will,  may,  can, 
must,  might,  coiild,  would,  should. 

They  are  called  auxiliary  verbs. 

CONJUGATION. 

A  connected  view  of  a  verb  in  its  several  modes 
and  tenses  is  called  its  conjugation. 

Conjugation  of  the  verb  love  in  the  active  voice  :  — 

PRINCIPAL    PARTS. 

Present.  Past.  Perfect  Participle. 

love.  loved.  loved. 


46  VERBS. 

INDICATIVE    MODE. 

f  love,  or  do  love. 
Present  •<    loves,  or  does  love,  when  the   subject  is  third 

[       person  singular. 
Past,  loved,  or  did  love. 

Note.  —  Do  love,  does  love,  and  did  love,  are  used  for  emphasis,  and  in 
interrogative  sentences. 

f  have  loved. 
Present  perfect  \    has  loved,  when  the  subject  is  third  per- 

[       son  singular. 
Past  Perfect,  had  loved. 
Future,  shall  or  will  love. 
Future  perfect,  shall  or  will  have  loved. 

In  poetic  style,  the  verb  or  its  auxiliary  is  varied 
in  form,  when  the  subject  is  in  the  second  person 
singular;  as, 

Present,  lovest,  or  dost  love. 

Past,  lovedst,  or  didst  love. 

Present  perfect,  hast  loved. 

Past  perfect,  hadst  loved. 

Future,  shalt  or  wilt  love. 

Future  perfect,  shalt  or  wilt  have  loved. 

POTENTIAL    MODE. 


Present,  may,  can,  must 

Past,1  might,  could,  would,  should 


>  love. 


1  This  is  usually  called  the  past  tense,  because  might,  could,  would,  should, 
are  inflections  of  may,  can,  will,  and  shall.  But  they  have  now  lost  their  past  signi- 
fication, and  are  used  with  the  simple  form  of  the  verb,  in  expressing  present  or 
future  time. 


>  loved. 
) 


VERBS.  47 

Present  perfect,  may,  can,  must  have  ) 

Past  perfect,  might,  could,  would,  should  have  ] 

In.  poetic  style,  the  auxiliaries  of  the  verb  are  varied 
in  form,  with  a  subject  in  the  second  person  singular. 

Present,  mayst,  canst,  ) 

>  love. 
Past,  mightst,  couldst,  wouldst,  shouldst  ) 

Present  perfect,  mayst,  canst,  have 

Past  perfect,  mightst,  couldst,  wouldst,  shouldst,  have 

By  reference  to  the  conjugation  of  the  verb  love,  it 
will  be  seen  that  the  simple  form  of  the  present  in- 
dicative is  the  same  as  the  infinitive  without  the  sign 
to  ;  as,  /  love.  I  write.  In  the  third  person  singular, 
present  indicative,  s  is  added  to  the  simple  form. 

In  declarative  sentences  the  past  indicative  is 
formed  by  inflecting  or  changing  the  simple  form ; 
as,  Present,  I  love.  Past,  I  loved.  Present,  I  write. 
Past,  I  wrote. 

In  declarative  sentences  the  auxiliaries  do  (does, 
did),  shall,  will,  may,  can,  must,  might,  could,  would, 
should,  are  only  used  immediately  before  the  simple 
form  of  the  verb  ;  as,  /  do  go.  You  shall  stay.  He 
must  write,  etc. 

In  declarative  sentences  the  auxilary  have  (has, 
had)  is  only  used  immediately  before  the  perfect 
participle ;  as,  /  have  written.  He  has  gone.  You 
may  have  recited. 


48  VERBS. 

The  auxiliary  do  (does,  did\  is  frequently  used  in 
interrogative,  negative,  and  emphatic  sentences  ;  as, 
Do  you  wish  to  see  me  ?  I  do  not  wish  to  see  yon.  I 
do  wisli  to  see  you. 

Note.  — It  will  be  noticed,  that  in  interrogative  sentences  the  subject 
separates  the  auxiliary  from  the  verb.  In  negative  sentences  the  adverb  not 
separates  them. 

SUBJUNCTIVE    MODE    (Old  Form), 
f    If  I  write. 

Present  <    If  thou  or  you  write. 
[    If  he  write. 

Note. —  Formerly  the  present  subjunctive  was  used  in  expressing  pres- 
ent time ;  but  at  present  it  is  properly  used  only  when  reference  is  had  to 
future  time.  Even  then,  it  is  regarded  by  the  most  learned  grammarians  as 
an  elliptical  form  of  the  potential.  (See  note,  p.  38.) 

IMPERATIVE    MODE. 

This  mode  is  used  only  in  the  present  tense,  with 
a  subject  in  the  second  person,  and  has  the  form  of 
the  indicative  present  ;  as,  love,  or  do  love. 

INFINITIVES. 

The  infinitive,  though  it  has  no  tense,  has  the 
forms  of  the  indicative  present,  and  present  perfect,  to 
denote  unfinished  and  finished  action  ;  as,  (to)  love, 
(to)  have  loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Imperfect.  Perfect.  Compound  Perfect. 

loving.  loved.  having  loved. 


VERBS. 

Conjugation  of  the  verb  be:  — 

PRINCIPAL    PARTS. 

Present.  Past.  Perfect  Part. 

am.  was.  been. 

INDICATIVE    MODE. 

Present  Tense. 

Am,  with  a  subject  first  person  singular. 
Is,  with  a  subject  third  person  singular. 
Are,  with  any  other  subject. 

Singular.  Plural. 

I  am.  we     "j 

You  are.  you    V  are. 

He  is.  they  J 

Past  Tense. 

Was,  with  a  subject  first  or  third  person  singular. 
Were,  with  any  other  subject. 

I  was.  we     "I 

You  were.  you    V  were. 

He  was.  they  J 

Present  Perfect  Tense. 

Has  been,  with  a  subject  third  person  singular. 

Have  been,  with  any  other  subject. 
I  have  been.  we     "j 

You  have  been.         you    I  have  been. 
He  has  been.  they  j 


49 


5O  VERBS. 

Past  perfect,  had  been. 

Future,  shall  or  will  be. 

Fut^tre  perfect,  shall  or  will  have  been. 

Poetic  Style. 

Present,  art. 

Past,  wast. 

Present  perfect,  hast  been. 

Past  perfect,  hadst  been. 

Future,  shalt  0r  wilt  be. 

Future  perfect  shalt  0r  wilt  have  been. 

POTENTIAL    MODE. 

Present,  may,  can,  must 


be. 
Past,  might,  could,  would,  should 

Present  perfect,  may,  can,  must  have  \ 

Past  perfect,  might,  could,  would,  should  have  \ 

In  poetic  style,  with  a  subject  in  the  second  per- 
son singular,  st  is  added  to  each  auxiliary,  except 
must;  as,  mayst,  canst,  etc. 

SUBJUNCTIVE    MODE. 

The  subjunctive  mode  is  the  same  in  form  as  the 
indicative  and  potential,  except  in  the  past  tense  of 
the  verb  be.  (See  note,  p.  38.) 

Singular.  Plural. 

If  I       I  If  we     I 

If  you  L  were.  If  you    \  were. 

If  he    J  If  they  j 

Poetic  style,  if  thou  wert. 


VERBS.  5 1 

IMPERATIVE    MODE. 

Present,  be  or  do  be. 

INFINITIVES. 
(To)  be.     (To)  have  been. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Imperfect.  Perfect.  Compound  Perfect. 

being.  been.  having  been. 

THE    PROGRESSIVE    FORM. 

There  is  another  form  of  the  active  voice  peculiar 
to  the  English  language,  called  the  progressive 
form.  It  represents  an  action  progressing;  begun, 
but  not  finished. 

It  is  formed  by  prefixing  the  verb  be  in  all  its 
modes  and  tenses  to  the  imperfect  participle  of  a 
verb;  as, 

I  am        "I  We  are     1 

You  are  i-  walking.  You  are     >•  walking. 

He  is      J  They  are  j 

EXERCISE. 

Put  the  following  sentences  in  the  progressive  form,  in  all  the 
modes  and  tenses. 

The  girls  gather  flowers. 
The  man  tells  the  truth. 
Does  the  man  tell  the  truth? 


52  VERBS. 

PASSIVE    VOICE. 

The  passive  voice  is  formed  by  prefixing  the 
verb  be,  in  all  its  modes  and  tenses,  to  the  perfect 
participle  of  a  transitive  verb  ;  as, 

I  am       ~\  We  are     1 

You  are  >  loved.  You  are     \-  loved. 

He  is      j  They  are  J 

INFINITIVE    PASSIVE. 

Present.  Perfect. 

(To)  be  loved.  (To)  have  been  loved. 

PASSIVE    PARTICIPLES. 

Imperfect.  Perfect.  Compound  Perfect. 

being  loved.  loved.  having  been  loved. 

Note.  —  The  imperfect  active  participle  is  sometimes  used  in  a  passive 
sense  ;  as,  The  house  is  building:  and  the  perfect  participle  is  always  passive; 
as,  The  man  taken  (or  being  taken)  in  the  act,  was  punished. 

EXERCISE. 

Put  the  following  sentences  in  the  passive  voice,  in  all  the  modes 
and  tenses. 

James  sees  William.      Does  James  see  William? 


VERBS.  53 

To  Teachers. —  It  has  been  common  to  include  person  and  number  as 
properties  of  the  verb.  But  the  verb  has  no  person  and  number,  in  the  same 
sense  that  nouns  and  pronouns  have. 

In  many  languages  the  verb  is  varied  in  form  to  show  the  person  and 
number  of  the  subject. 

Thus,  the  Latin  verb  amare  (to  love)  is  conjugated  in  the  indicative  mode 
present  tense,  as  follows  :  — 

First  Person  Singular.  Plural. 

amo  (I  love).  amdmus  (we  love). 

Second  Person  Singular.  Plural. 

amas  (you  love).  amatis  (you  love). 

Third  Person  Singular.  Plural. 

amat  (he  loves).  amant  (they  love). 

The  other  modes  and  tenses  have  similar  changes. 

Here  it  will  be  noticed  that  the  Latin  verb  has  a  special  form  for  each 
person  and  number ;  while  in  English,  we  use  the  same  form  five  times  out  of 
six,  —  it  being  varied  only  by  adding  s  in  the  indicative  present  when  the 
subject  is  third  person  singular. 

This,  and  changing  have  to  has  in  the  present  perfect  indicative  (when 
the  subject  is  third  person  singular),  are  the  only  changes  for  person  and 
number,  in  common  style,  in  all  the  modes  and  tenses.  (See  -conjugation  of 
the  verb  love.) 

The  irregular  verb  be  has  a  special  form  for  the  first  and  third  person 
singular,  of  the  present  and  past  tenses  of  the  indicative.  (See  conjugation 
ot  the  verb  be.) 

With  this  explanation,  it  is  recommended  that  in  parsing  or  giving  the 
construction  of  verbs,  pupils  be  required  to  state  what  changes  have  been 
made,  and  omit  any  reference  to  person  and  number  when  the  form  is  not 
changed. 

A  knowledge  of  these  changes  is  of  practical  value  in  writing  correctly, 
while  the  rule  commonly  given  is  not. 

If,  however,  teachers  prefer  to  have  the  rule  given,  pupils  should  under 
stand  what,  and  how  little,  it  means. 


54  ADJECTIVES  AND  ADVERBS. 

COMPARISON    OF    ADJECTIVES    AND    ADVERBS. 

Adjectives  are  varied  in  form  to  express  different 
degrees  of  the  same  quality  ;  as,  great,  greater,  great- 
est;  industrious,  more  industrious,  most  industrious ; 
happy,  less  happy,  least  happy. 

The  change  in  form  to  denote  different  degrees  of 
quality  is  called  comparison. 

There  are  three  degrees  of  comparison,  —  the 
positive,  the  comparative,  and  the  superlative. 

The  positive  simply  expresses  the  quality. 

The  comparative  expresses  a  higher  or  lower  degree 
of  the  quality. 

The  sitperlative  expresses  the  highest  or  lowest 
degree  of  the  quality. 

Adjectives  of  one  syllable,  and  many  adjectives 
of  two  syllables,  express  a  higher  and  the  highest 
degree  by  the  addition  of  r  or  er,  st  or  est,  to  the 
positive. 

Adjectives  of  more  than  two  syllables  are  usually 
compared  by  prefixing  more  and  most  to  the  positive. 

All  adjectives  that  admit  of  different  degrees  of 
the  quality,  are  made  to  express  a  lower  and  the 
lowest  degree  of  the  quality  by  prefixing  less  and 
least  to  the  positive. 

Many  adverbs  are  compared  like  adjectives  ;  as, 


ADJECTIVES  AND  ADVERBS.  55 

soon,  sooner,  soonest;  often,  oftener,  oftenest;  pleasantly, 
more  (or  less)  pleasantly,  most  (or  least)  pleasantly. 

Note.  —  These  are  general  rules,  but  not  always  strictly  adhered  to.  All 
adjectives  that  admit  of  the  degrees  of  comparison  may  be  compared  by 
more  and  most ;  as,  It  is  most  true.  He  possesses  the  most  ample  means. 
One  boy  is  more  industrious  than  another. 

Some  adjectives  are  irregularly  compared  ;  as, 

Positive.  Comparative.  Superlative. 

good,  better,  best, 

bad,  ill,  or  evil,         worse,  worst, 

little,  less,  least, 

late,  later,  latest  or  last, 

much  or  many,          more,  most, 

inner,  inmost  or  innermost. 

nether,  nethermost. 

upper,  uppermost  or  upmost. 

This,  that,  these,  those,  former,  latter,  each,  every, 
either,  some,  one,  any,  all,  such,  are  more  properly 
classed  with  the  adjective  than  with  the  pronoun, 
since  they  will  always  admit  a  noun  after  them,  like 
other  adjectives  used  as  nouns  ;  as,  This  (man)  is 
the  person.  Each  (voter)  has  a  ballot.  Some  (persons) 
think  so.  The  former  (statement)  is  true,  the  latter 
(statement)  is  not. 

Note.  —  The  usual  division  into  demonstrative,  distributive,  and  indefi- 
nite, is  not  a  grammatical  distinction,  but  one  dependent  on  the  meaning. 


56  SYNTAX. 

PART   III. 

SYNTAX. 

CONSTRUCTION    AND    ARRANGEMENT. 

By  construction  is  meant  the  grammatical  rela- 
tion of  the  words  in  a  sentence.  Arrangement  has 
reference  simply  to  their  position  ;  as, 

The  acquisition  of  knowledge  is  one  of  the  most  pleasing 
employments  of  the  human  mind  in  every  period  of  life. 

In  every  period  of  life,  the  acquisition  of  knowledge  is 
one  of  the  most  pleasing  employments  of  the  human  mind. 

In  these  sentences  the  arrangement  is  different, 
but  the  construction  is  the  same. 

Rule  l.  The  subject  of  a  sentence  is  in  the  nom- 
inative case. 

Note  1.  —  The  subject  may  be  a  noun,  as,  "Jo/in  studies;"  or  a  pro- 
noun, as,  "  He  learns ; "  or  a  phrase,  as,  "  To  see  the  sun  is  pleasant ; "  or  a 
clause,  as,  "  That  he  told  the  truth  is  evident." 

Note  2.  —  This  is  important  only  in  regard  to  pronouns.  Nouns, 
phrases,  and  clauses  have  the  same  form  in  the  nominative  and  the  objec- 
tive cases ;  as,  The  boys  are  here.  I  see  the  boys.  To  see  is  to  believe.  I 
wish  to  see. 

Note  3.  —  When  the  verb  is  in  the  imperative  mode,  the  subject  is  not 
commonly  expressed, 

Note  4.  —  In  arrangement,  the  subject  is  generally  placed  before  the 
predicate.  But  in  interrogative  sentences,  and  in  sentences  introduced  by 


SYNTAX.  57 

there  or  here,  the  subject  is  placed  after  the  verb,  or  between  the  auxiliary 
and  the  verb;  as,  Are  you  well?  Will  you  go  with  me?  There  are  set-en 
days  in  a  week.  Here  is  the  book. 

Note  5.  —  In  the  subjunctive  mode,  a  condition  may  be  expressed  by 
inverting  the  subject  and  predicate  ;  as,  Were  it  not  so,  I  would  tell  you. 


Rule  2.  — In  the  indicative  present,  and  present 
perfect,  the  form  of  the  verb  is  changed  when  the 
subject  is  third  person  singular.  See  conjugation  of 
love,  p.  46. 

The  verb  be  is  also  varied  in  the  past  tense  with  a 
subject  of  the  third  person  singular.  See  conjuga- 
tion of  be,  p.  49. 

Note  1.  —  A  compound  subject  consisting  of  two  or  more  singular  nouns 
denoting  different  persons  or  things,  and  connected  by  and,  is  plural ;  as, 
"  Virtue  and  vice  have  their  reward." 

Note  2.  —  If  the  nouns  denote  the  same  or  similar  things,  the  subject 
is  commonly  singular ;  as,  "  This  good  man  and  exemplary  Christian  is  no 
more."  "  A  bustle,  and  the  sound  of  horses'  feet  was  now  heard." 

Note  3. —  A  compound  subject,  consisting  of  two  or  more  singular  nouns 
connected  by  or  or  nor,  is  singular ;  as,  "  The  boy's  father  or  mother  deserves 
great  praise." 

Note  4.  —  If  one  of  the  nouns  constituting  a  compound  subject  is  plural, 
the  subject  is  plural ;  as,  "  William  or  his  brothers  were  present."  "  Neither 
Sarah  nor  her  sisters  were  there." 

Note  5.  —  When  a  compound  subject  consists  of  nouns  or  pronouns  of 
different  persons,  the  subject  is  in  the  person  of  the  word  nearest  the  verb. 

Rule  3.  —  Adjectives  and  participles  directly  limit 
nouns,  and  substitutes  for  nouns  ;  as,  The  kind  king, 
extending  his  hand,  raised  this  suppliant. 


58  SYNTAX. 

REMARK. —  When  a  word  limits  another  without  the  use  of  a  preposition, 
the  limitation  is  direct;  when  the  words  are  connected  by  a  preposition,  it  is 
indirect. 

Note  1.  —  An  adjective  may  be  a  word,  a  phrase,  or  a  clause. 

Note  2.  —  Adjectives  implying  unity  or  plurality  must  agree  in  number 
with  nouns;  as,  This  man;  these  men;  ten  men. 

Note  3.  —  Many  is  used  with  a  singular  noun,  when  followed  by  the 
indefinite  article  ;  as,  Many  a  man.  Full  many  a  gem. 

Note  4.  —  An  adjective  limiting  the  predicate  refers  to  the  subject,  and 
is  called  the  predicate  adjective  ;  as,  The  boy  is  kind. 

Note  5.  —  An  adjective  is  commonly  placed  before  the  noun  it  limits  : 
but  when  it  is  itself  limited  by  a  phrase,  it  follows  the  noun  ;  as,  The  master 
found  the  pupil  adequate  to  the  task. 

Rule  4.  Adverbs  directly  modify  verbs,  adjectives, 
and  other  adverbs ;  as,  He  was  a  very  wise  man. 
The  boy  acted  very  foolishly. 

Note  1.  —  An  adverb  may  be  a  word,  a  phrase,  or  a  clause;  x=>,Thc  boy 
is  here.  He  is  in  this  room.  He  came  before  school  began. 

Note  2.  —  What  are  called  "  adverbs  of  affirmation  and  negation  "  (re- 
sponsives),  yes,  no,  yea,  nay,  perform  the  office  of  a  sentence  ;  as,  Will  you 
go  ?  Yes,  —  that  is,  /  -will  go. 

Note  3. —  There,  when  not  an  adverb  of  place,  adds  nothing  to  the 
sense,  but  simply  inverts  the  order  of  the  subject  and  predicate.  It  is  an 
expletive,  and  does  not  limit ;  as,  There  is  a  pleasure  in  the  pathless  -woods. 

Rule  5.  A  noun  or  pronoun  directly  limiting  an- 
other, and  denoting  the  same  person  or  thing,  is  in 
the  same  case,  by  apposition  ;  as,  Homer  the  poet 
was  blind.  He  spoke  of  Howard  the  philanthropist. 
We  the  subscribers  agree,  etc. 


SYNTAX.  59 

Note  1.  —  The  parts  taken  separately,  are  often  in  apposition  with  the 
whole ;  as,  The  men  struck  each  other.  Here  each  is  in  apposition  with 
men,  denoting  them  separately,  and  other  is  the  object  of  struck. 

Note  2.  —  Parts  connected  by  a  conjunction  may  be  collectively  in  appo- 
sition with  the  whole ;  as,  "  The  people  dispersed  some  this  way,  others  that 
way. 

Rule  6.  Intransitive  and  passive  verbs  have  the 
same  case  after  as  before  them,  when  both  words 
denote  the  same  person  or  thing ;  as,  /  am  he.  It 
is  /.  I  know  it  to  be  him.  He  was  called  John. 

Rule  7.  A  noun  or  pronoun  denoting  possession, 
and  directly  limiting  another  noun,  is  in  the  possessive 
case ;  as,  William  s  book  has  been  badly  used. 

Note  1.  —  This  is  the  only  case-inflection  of  the  noun. 

Note  2.  —  Two  or  more  nouns  denoting  joint  owners  have  the  posses- 
sive form  affixed  only  to  the  last ;  as,  "  Harper  and  Sanford'^  pianofortes." 

Note  3.  —  If  the  nouns  denote  the  several  owners,  the  possessive  form 
must  be  given  to  each  ;  as,  "  William'.y,  John'.?,  and  Mary'j  books." 

Note  4.  —  A  phrase  in  the  possessive  has  the  case  sign  at  the  end ;  as, 
"  The  queen  of  England's  health."  "  Anybody  else's  mistake." 

Note  5.  —  In  such  expressions  as,  "It  came  from  Brown's  the  grocer," 
or  "  from  Brown  the  grocer's,"  the  sign  of  the  possessive  may  be  appended 
to  either  noun,  but  not  to  both. 

Rule  8.  The  direct  object  of  an  active  transitive 
verb  is  in  the  objective  case ;  as,  I  saw  him.  We 
heard  them. 

Note  1.  —  Participles  and  infinitives  derived  from  transitive  verbs  take 
the  objective  case  after  them  ;  as,  "  Seeing  him  pleased  me."  "  The  boy,  see- 
ing me,  ran  to  me." 


60  SYNTAX. 

Rule  9.  Prepositions  take  the  objective  case  after 
them ;  as,  I  spoke  to  him,  and  he  replied  to  me. 

Rule  10.  An  infinitive  phrase  may  limit  a  verb, 
noun,  adjective,  or  adverb:  as,  A  desire  to  excel; 
used  to  play  with ;  ready  to  play  ;  too  rapidly  to  stop. 

Note  1.  — After  bid,  dare,  hear,  feel,  make,  see,  let,  need,  and  a  few 
others  in  the  active  voice,  the  simple  infinitive  (without  the  sign  id)  is  used. 

Note  2.  —  When  the  infinitive  phrase  is  used  as  a  subject,  it  has  no  ante- 
cedent term  of  relation ;  as,  To  see  the  sun  is  pleasant.  But  when  the  sen- 
tence is  inverted,  to  connects  ;  as,  It  is  pleasant  to  see  the  sun. 

Rule  11.  A  noun  or  pronoun  having  no  grammati- 
cal relation  to  other  words  is  used  independently  in 
the  nominative  case. 

Note  1.  —  i.  By  direct  address  ;  as,  "  Charles,  come  to  me." 

2.  By  exclamation  ;  as,  "  Poor  Indians  !  where  are  they  now  ? " 

3.  By  redundancy  ;  as,  "  The  Pilgrim  Fathers,  where  are  they  ? " 

4.  With  a  participle ;  as,  "  The  ship  having  arrived,  the  sailors  left." 
Note  2. —  The  first  person  of  the  personal  pronoun  is  sometimes  used 

independently  in  the  objective  case ;  as,  Me  miserable .'   Ah  me  ! 

Rule  12.  Pronouns  must  agree  in  person,  number, 
and  gender,  with  the  nouns  they  represent ;  as,  Jane 
saw  her  mother.  William  takes  care  of  his  brother. 

EXCEPTION.  —  //  is  sometimes  used  without  reference  to  the  gender  or 
number  of  the  noun  it  represents  ;  as,  "  When  I  took  the  child,  it  cried."  "  It 
is  war  passions  which  we  ought  most  to  fear." 

Note  1.  —  This  rule  requires  no  change  of  form  in  the  relative  pronouns  ; 
and  the  form  in  personal  pronouns  is  not  changed  for  gender,  except  in  the 
third  person  singular. 


SYNTAX.  6 1 

Note  2.  —  A  noun  personified  requires  the  pronoun  to  agree  with  it  in 
gender,  in  the  figurative  sense ;  as,  "  Give  to  Repose  the  solemn  hour  she 
claims." 

Note  3.  —  A  phrase  or  a  clause  used  as  a  noun  is  in  the  third  person, 
singular  number,  neuter  gender. 

Rule  13.  A  preposition  connects  a  limiting  word 
with  the  word  limited ;  as,  He  spoke  to  me.  He  is 
a  man  of  sense. 

Note  1. —  The  preposition  is  commonly  placed  before  the  nouns  or  pro- 
nouns they  govern,  except  in  interrogative  sentences. 

Rule  14.  Conjunctions  connect  words,  phrases, 
clauses,  and  sentences ;  as,  Four  and  five  are  nine. 
I  saw  the  man  in  the  street  and  at  his  home.  He 
came  before  I  left.  James  abused  his  books,  but 
Sarah  carefully  preserved  hers. 

Note  1.  —  Co-ordinate  conjunctions  connect  the  same  or  similar  parts  of 
speech,  phrases  and  clauses  in  the  same  construction  ;  as,  "James  and  William 
went  home."  "  I  saw  the  boy  and  the  girl."  "  The  man  spoke  slowly  and 
distinctly."  "  We  are  required  to  deal  justly  and  to  love  mercy." 

Note  2.  —  In  almost  all  cases  in  which  words  and  phrases  in  the  same 
construction  are  connected,  they  may  be  regarded  as  contracted  sentences 
(see  p.  21).  There  are  a  few  exceptional  cases  in  which  no  such  contraction 
exists  ;  as,  Four  and  five  are  nine.  John  and  Jane  are  a  handsome  couple. 

Note  3.  —  Subordinate  conjunctions  and  relative  pronouns  connect 
clauses  with  the  statements  limited  by  them  ;  as,  "  I  shall  go  //  I  can."  "  I 
saw  the  man  thai  called."  "  He  was  here  •while  you  were  absent." 

Rule  15.  Interjections  have  no  grammatical  rela- 
tion to  other  words. 


62  PUNC  TUA  TION. 


PUNCTUATION. 

Punctuation  treats  of  the  method  of  dividing  writ- 
ten language  into  sentences  and  parts  of  sentences. 

CHARACTERS    USED    IN    PUNCTUATION. 


Period, 
Interrogation,                 ? 
Exclamation,                   ! 
Colon,                               : 
Semicolon,                       ; 

Comma, 
Dash, 
Parentheses, 
Quotation, 
Apostrophe, 

THE    PERIOD. 

Rule  i.  A  period  should  be  placed  at  the  end  of  a 
declarative  sentence ;  as, 

Life  is  short. 

Rule  2.  A  period  should  be  used  after  initials  and 
abbreviations ;  as, 

D.  Webster,  U.S.A.,  R.  I.,  Mass.,  Gov. 

THE    INTERROGATION    POINT. 

Rule.  An  interrogation  point  should  be  placed  at 
the  end  of  an  interrogative  sentence ;  as, 
Where  did  you  see  him? 

THE    EXCLAMATION    POINT. 

Rule  l.  An  exclamation  point  should  be  placed  at 
the  end  of  an  exclamatory  sentence ;  as, 
Hurry,  hurry  to  the  field  ! 


PUNC  TUA  TION.  6  3 

Rule  2.  An  exclamation  point  is  used  after  words 
or  phrases  expressing  passion  or  emotion ;  as, 
Poor  Indians  !  where  are  they  now? 

THE    COMMA. 

Rule  l.  A  simple  sentence  requires  no  comma, 
when  the  arrangement  and  construction  coincide ; 
as, 

This  destruction  raged  from  Madras  to  Tanjore  for  eigh- 
teen months  without  intermission. 

Rule  2.  When  the  arrangement  and  construction 
do  not  coincide,  the  inversion  may  be  marked  by  a 
comma ;  as, 

For  eighteen  months,  this  destruction  raged,  without  in- 
termission, from  Madras  to  Tanjore. 

Rule  3.  Explanatory  clauses  are  separated  from 
the  statements  or  clauses  on  which  they  depend,  by 
a  comma ;  as, 

We  see  the  emblem  of  our  fate  in  flowers,  which  bloom 
and  die. 

Rule  4.  Restrictive  clauses  are  not  commonly  sep- 
arated from  the  statements  or  clauses  on  which  they 
depend ;  as, 

A  man  that  steals  deserves  punishment. 

Rule  5.  A  series  of  words  or  phrases  in  the  same 
construction  requires  a  comma  to  indicate  the  omis- 


64  PUNCTUA  TION. 

sion  of  the  conjunction,  —  and  between  the  last  two 
of  the  series,  though  the  conjunction  is  expressed  ;  as, 

Happy  is  the  man  who  honors,  obeys,  loves,  and  serves 
his  Creator. 

To  live  soberly,  to  speak  truthfully,  and  to  act  honestly, 
is  the  duty  of  every  man. 

Rule  6.  Contrasted  words  and  phrases  are  sepa- 
rated by  a  comma ;  as, 

He  was  a  great  poet,  but  a  bad  man. 

Rule  7.  Nouns  in  apposition  are  separated  by  a 
comma  when  the  word  used  to  explain  is  limited  by 
other  words ;  as, 

Paul,  the  apostle  to  the  Gentiles,  was  eminent  for  his  zeal. 

Rule  8.  A  comma  should  be  placed  before  the 
conjunction  or  when  what  follows  it,  explains,  or  is 
in  apposition  with  what  precedes  it ;  as, 

I  heard  the  voice  of  the  skipper,  or  captain  of  the  boat. 

THE    SEMICOLON. 

Rule  1.  The  members  of  a  compound  sentence 
may  be  separated  by  a  semicolon  ;  as, 

Every  gift  of  Heaven  is  sometimes  abused ;  but  good 
sense  and  fine  talents,  by  a  natural  law,  gravitate  towards 
virtue. 

Note.  —  If  the  sentence  is  short  and  neither  of  the  members  is  sub- 
divided, they  may  be  separated  by  a  comma. 


PUNCTUA  TION.  65 

Rule  2.  Clauses  and  phrases,  having  a  common 
dependence,  may  be  separated  by  a  semicolon  when 
one  of  them  is  divisible  by  a  comma  ;  as, 

He  who,  in  the  study  of  science,  has  discovered  a  new 
means  of  alleviating  pain  ;  who  has  suggested  a  new  method 
of  remedying  disease,  —  has  left  a  memorial  of  himself  never 
to  be  forgotten. 

Rule  3.  As,  or  namely,  introducing  an  example,  is 
preceded  by  a  semicolon,  and  followed  by  a  comma  ;  as, 

We  should  speak  the  truth. 

THE    COLON. 

Rule.  The  colon  is  sometimes  used  to  separate 
parts  of  a  sentence,  one  of  which  is  subdivided  by  a 
semicolon ;  as, 

The  sentence  was  divided  into  two  parts  :  in  the  first  was 
shown  the  necessity  of  exercise ;  in  the  second,  the  advan- 
tage that  results  from  it. 

THE    DASH,  ETC. 

Rule  l.  The  dash  is  used  to  denote  that  a  sen- 
tence is  incomplete ;  as, 

Once,  upon  a  time,  some  men  dressed  all  alike  — 

Rule  2.  To  denote  an  abrupt  turn  in  the  form  of 
the  sentence,  or  in  the  sentiment ;  as, 

Was  there  ever —     But  I  scorn  to  boast. 

I  said  —  I  know  not  what. 


66  PUNCTUA  TION. 

Rule  3.  To  enclose  a  parenthetical  phrase  or 
clause ;  as, 

Know,  then,  this  truth,  —  enough  for  man  to  know,  — 
Virtue  alone  is  happiness  below. 

Marks  of  parenthesis  denote  that  the  words  en- 
closed may  be  omitted  without  injuring  the  con- 
struction of  the  sentence,  or  detracting  materially 
from  the  sense  ;  as, 

Know,  then,  this  truth  (enough  for  man  to  know), 

Virtue  alone  is  happiness  below. 

Note.  —  Either  method  of  marking  what  is  parenthetical  is  allowable,  the 
dashes  being  commonly  used  where  the  parenthesis  is  short. 

Quotation-marks  denote  that  the  passage  enclosed 
is  taken  in  the  words  of  the  author ;  as,  The  poet 
says, 

"  The  proper  study  of  mankind  is  man." 

An  apostrophe  denotes  the  omission  of  a  letter  or 
letters,  and  is  the  sign  of  the  possessive  case  of 
nouns  ;  as, 

I'm  sure  of  it,  you'll  ne'er  forget. 

A  friend  should  bear  &  friend's  infirmities. 

USE    OF    CAPITALS. 

Rule  1.  The  first  word  of  a  sentence  should  begin 
with  a  capital ;  as, 
The  boy  studies. 


PUNCTUATION.  6? 

Rule  2.  Proper    nouns,    and   words    derived    from 
them,  should  begin  with  capitals ;  as, 
Spain,  Spanish,  Spaniard. 

Rule  3.  All  names  applied  to  the  Deity  should  be- 
gin with  capitals  ;  as, 

God.     The  Almighty.     The  Supreme  Being. 

Rule  4.  The  names  of  the  months,  and  of  the  days 
of  the  week,  should  begin  with  capitals ;  as, 
January,  February  :  Tuesday,  Friday. 

Rule  5.  The  names  of  public  bodies  should  begin 
with  capitals ;  as, 

The  Legislature  ;  Boston  Temperance  Society. 

Rule  6.  The  words  I  and  O  are  written  with  capi- 
tals. 

Rule  7.  The  names  of  religious  denominations  and 
political  parties  should  begin  with  capitals  ;  as, 
Baptists,  Methodists,  Republicans,  Democrats. 
Rule  8.  All  titles  should  begin  with  capitals ;   as, 
Mr.,  Col.,  Esq.,  Rev.,  Dr. 

Rule  9.  A  direct   quotation   should   begin  with   a 
capital ;  as,  They  said, 

"  Never  man  spake  like  this  man." 

Rule  10.  The  principal  words  in  the  titles  or  divis- 


68  PUNCTUA  TION. 

ions  of  a  book  or  discourse  should  begin  with  capitals  ; 
as, 

Rules  for  Analysis  and  Construction. 

Rule  11.  The   first  word   in   every  line    of   poetry 
should  begin  with  a  capital ;  as, 

"  The  curfew  tolls  the  knell  of  parting  day ; 

The  lowing  herd  winds  slowly  o'er  the  lea ; 
The  ploughman  homeward  plods  his  weary  way, 
And  leaves  the  world  to  darkness  and  to  me." 


IRREGULAR    PLURALS.  69 


PART  IV. 

TABLE  OF  IRREGULAR  PLURALS,  FOR  REF- 
ERENCE. 


Singular. 

Plural. 

Singular. 

Plural. 

man, 

men. 

OX, 

oxen. 

woman, 

women. 

tooth, 

teeth. 

child, 

children. 

mouse, 

mice. 

(  pence, 
penny     \          .         .  . 

(  pennies  (pieces  of  com). 

(  brothers  (of  the  same  family), 
brother  \ 

(  brethren  (of  the  same  association). 

f  dies  (used  to  stamp  coin). 
|  dice  (used  in  games). 

(  geniuses  (applied  to  human  beings), 
genius    1 

(  genii  (applied  to  spiritual  beings). 

Words  composed  of  a  noun  and  the  adjective 
y  have  the  regular  plural  :  as,  handfiil,  hand/ills ; 
spoonful,  spoonfuls;  mouthful,  mouthfuls ;  pailful, 
pailfuls. 

Words  composed  of  a  noun  and  an  adjective 
have  commonly  the  plural  termination  added  to  the 
noun :  as,  court-martial,  courts-martial ;  knight-errant, 
knights-errant. 

Words  composed  of  two  nouns  have  the  regular 
plural:  as,  night-steed,  night-steeds ;  tide-waiter,  tide- 
waiters. 


70  IRREGULAR    PLURALS. 

Words  composed  of  two  nouns  connected  by  a 
preposition  have  the  plural  termination  added  to  the 
first  word:  as,  father-in-law,  fatJiers-in-law ;  son-in- 
law,  sons-in-law. 

A  letter  or  figure  is  made  plural  by  adding  an 
apostrophe  and  s :  as,  seven  as ;  four  9 's. 

Many  words  from  foreign  languages  retain,  for*  a 
longer  or  shorter  time,  their  original  plural ;  as, 
phenomenon,  phenomena  ;  radius,  radii;  crisis,  crises, 
etc.  (See  dictionary.) 

GENDER. 


The  distinction  of  sex  is  expressed  :  — 

i.  By  different  words  :  as, 

Masculine. 

Feminine. 

Masculine. 

Feminine. 

bachelor, 

maid. 

husband, 

wife. 

beau, 

belle. 

king, 

queen. 

boy, 

girl. 

lad, 

lass. 

brother, 

sister. 

landlord, 

landlady. 

buck, 

doe. 

lord, 

lady. 

bull, 

cow. 

man, 

woman. 

drake, 

duck. 

master, 

mistress. 

earl, 

countess. 

nephew, 

niece. 

father, 

mother. 

papa, 

mamma. 

friar, 

nun. 

ram, 

ewe. 

gander, 

goose. 

son, 

daughter. 

gentleman, 

lady. 

uncle, 

aunt. 

hart, 

roe. 

wizard, 

witch. 

IRREGULAR    PLURALS. 


2.  By  difference  of  termination  :  as, 


Masculine. 

Feminine. 

Masculine. 

Feminine. 

abbot, 

abbess. 

hero, 

heroine. 

actor, 

actress. 

host, 

hostess. 

administrator, 

administratrix. 

hunter, 

huntress. 

ambassador, 

ambassadress. 

Jew, 

Jewess. 

author, 

authoress. 

landgrave, 

landgravine. 

baron, 

baroness. 

lion, 

lioness. 

benefactor, 

benefactress. 

marquis, 

marchioness. 

bridegroom, 

bride. 

margrave, 

margravine. 

count, 

countess. 

negro, 

negress. 

czar, 

czarina. 

patron, 

patroness. 

dauphin, 

dauphiness. 

peer, 

peeress. 

deacon, 

deaconess. 

priest, 

priestess. 

don, 

donna. 

prince, 

princess. 

duke, 

duchess. 

prophet, 

prophetess. 

emperor, 

empress. 

shepherd, 

shepherdess. 

enchanter, 

enchantress. 

songster, 

songstress. 

executor, 

executrix. 

sorcerer, 

sorceress. 

giant, 

giantess. 

sultan, 

sultana. 

governor, 

governess. 

testator, 

testatrix. 

heir, 

heiress. 

widower, 

widow. 

3.  By  different  words  prefixed  :  as, 

Masculine.  Feminine. 

man-servant,  maid-servant, 

male-child,  female-child. 

Note.  —  This  method  of  distinguishing  the  gender  is  becoming  less  and 
less  frequent,  and  in  several  of  the  words  here  given,  the  feminine  form  is 
seldom  used. 


IRRE  GULAR     VERBS. 


TABLE  OF  IRREGULAR  VERBS,  FOR  REFERENCE. 


Present. 

Past. 

Perfect  Participle. 

am  or  be, 

was, 

been. 

arise, 

arose, 

arisen. 

bear  (to  bring  forth), 

bore  or  bare, 

born. 

bear  (to  uphold), 

bore,  bare, 

borne. 

beat, 

beat, 

beaten  or  beat. 

begin, 

began, 

begun. 

bid, 

bid,  bade, 

bidden,  bid. 

bite, 

bit, 

bitten,  bit. 

blow, 

blew, 

blown. 

break, 

broke,  brake, 

broken. 

chide, 

chid, 

chidden,  chid. 

choose, 

chose, 

chosen. 

cleave  (to  split), 

clove,  cleft, 

cloven,  cleft. 

come, 

came, 

come. 

do, 

did, 

done. 

draw, 

drew, 

drawn. 

drink, 

drank, 

drank,  drunk. 

drive, 

drove, 

driven. 

eat, 

ate,  eat, 

eaten  or  eat. 

fall, 

fell, 

fallen. 

%, 

flew, 

flown. 

forbear, 

forbore, 

forborne. 

forget, 

forgot, 

forgotten,  forgot. 

forsake, 

forsook, 

forsaken. 

freeze, 

froze, 

frozen. 

Note.—  Old  forms  in  Italics. 


IRREGULAR     VERBS. 


73 


Present. 

Past. 

Perfect  Participle. 

get, 

got, 

gotten,  got. 

give, 

gave, 

given. 

g°> 

went, 

gone. 

grow, 

grew, 

grown. 

hide, 

hid, 

hidden,  hid. 

hold, 

held, 

held,  holden. 

know, 

knew, 

known. 

lade  (to  load),1 

laded, 

laden. 

lie  (to  recline), 

lay, 

lain,  lien. 

ride, 

rode, 

ridden. 

ring, 

rang,  rung, 

rung. 

rise, 

rose, 

risen. 

run, 

ran,  run, 

run. 

see, 

saw, 

seen. 

shake, 

shook, 

shaken. 

sing, 

sang,  sung, 

sung. 

sink, 

sank,  sunk, 

sunk. 

slay, 

slew, 

slain. 

smite, 

smote, 

smitten,  smit. 

speak, 

spoke,  spake, 

spoken. 

spring, 

sprang,  sprung, 

sprung. 

steal, 

stole, 

stolen. 

stride, 

strode, 

stridden. 

strive, 

strove, 

striven. 

swear, 

swore, 

sworn. 

swim, 

swam,  swum, 

swum. 

take, 

took, 

taken. 

tear, 

tore, 

torn. 

1  Lade,  to  dip,  is  regular. 


74 


IRREG  ULAR     VERBS. 


Present. 
throw, 
tread, 
wear, 
write, 
weave, 


Past.  Perfect  Participle. 
threw,  thrown, 

trod,  trodden  or  trod, 

wore,  worn, 

wrote,  written, 

wove,  woven,  wove. 


IRREGULAR    VERBS    WHOSE    PAST    TENSE    AND    PERFECT 
PARTICIPLES    ARE    ALIKE. 


Present. 

abide, 

bend, 

beseech, 

bind, 

bleed, 

breed, 

bring, 

burst, 

buy, 

cast, 

catch, 

cling, 

cost, 

creep, 

cut, 

dig, 

feed, 

feel, 

fight, 

find, 


Past. 
abode, 
bent, 
besought, 
bound, 
bled, 
bred, 
brought, 
burst, 
bought, 
cast, 
caught, 
clung, 
cost, 
crept, 
cut, 
dug, 
fed, 
felt, 
fought, 
found, 


Perfect  Participle. 
abode, 
bent, 
besought, 
bound, 
bled, 
bred, 
brought, 
burst, 
bought, 
cast, 
caught, 
clung, 
cost, 
crept, 
cut. 
dug. 
fed. 
felt, 
fought, 
found. 


IRREGULAR     VERBS. 


75 


Present. 

Past. 

Perfect  Participle. 

flee, 

fled, 

fled. 

fling, 

flung, 

flung. 

grind, 

ground, 

ground. 

have, 

had, 

had. 

hear, 

heard, 

heard. 

hit, 

hit, 

hit. 

hurt, 

hurt, 

hurt. 

keep, 

kept, 

kept. 

lay, 

laid, 

laid. 

lead, 

led, 

led. 

leave, 

left, 

left. 

lend, 

lent, 

lent. 

let, 

let, 

let. 

lose, 

lost, 

lost. 

make. 

made, 

made. 

mean, 

meant, 

meant. 

meet, 

met, 

met. 

pay, 

paid, 

paid. 

put, 

.put, 

put. 

read, 

read,  2 

read.* 

rend, 

rent, 

rent. 

rid, 

rid, 

rid. 

say, 

said, 

said. 

seek, 

sought, 

sought. 

sell, 

sold, 

sold. 

send, 

sent, 

sent. 

set, 

set, 

set. 

shed, 

shed, 

shed. 

shoe, 

shod, 

shod. 

2  Pronounced  red. 


76 


IRREGULAR     VERBS. 


Present. 

Past. 

Perfect  Participle. 

shoot, 

shot, 

shot 

shrink, 

shrank, 

shrunk. 

shut, 

shut, 

shut. 

sit, 

sat, 

sat. 

sleep, 

slept, 

slept. 

slide, 

slid, 

slid. 

sling, 

slung, 

slung. 

slink, 

slunk, 

slunk. 

slit, 

slit, 

slit,  slitted. 

speed, 

sped, 

sped. 

spend, 

spent, 

spent. 

spin, 

spun, 

spun. 

spit, 

spit, 

spit. 

split, 

split, 

split. 

spread, 

spread, 

spread 

stand, 

stood, 

stood. 

stick, 

stuck. 

stuck. 

sting, 

stung, 

stung. 

strike, 

struck, 

struck. 

string, 

strung, 

strung. 

sweep, 

swept, 

swept. 

swing, 

swung, 

swung. 

teach, 

taught, 

taught. 

tell, 

told, 

told. 

think, 

thought, 

thought. 

thrust, 

thrust, 

thrust. 

weep, 

wept, 

wept. 

win, 

won, 

won. 

wind, 

wound, 

wound. 

wring, 

wrung, 

wrung. 

REGULAR    AND    IRREGULAR     VERBS. 


77 


The  following  verbs  are  sometimes  regular,  and 
sometimes  irregular,  in  the  formation  of  their  princi- 
pal parts  :  — 


Present. 

Past. 

Perfect  Participle. 

awake, 

awoke,  awaked, 

awaked. 

bereave, 

bereft,  bereaved, 

bereft,  bereaved. 

blend, 

blended, 

blended,  blent. 

build, 

built,  builded, 

built,  builded. 

burn, 

burned,  burnt, 

burned,  burnt. 

cleave  (to  adhere), 

cleaved,  clave, 

cleaved. 

clothe, 

clothed,  clad, 

clothed,  clad. 

crow, 

crowed,  crew, 

crowed. 

dare  (to  venture), 

dared,  durst, 

dared. 

deal, 

dealt,  dealed, 

dealt,  dealed. 

dream, 

dreamed,  dreamt, 

dreamed,  dreamt. 

dwell, 

dwelt,  dwelled, 

dwelt,  dwelled. 

gild, 

gilded,  gilt, 

gilded,  gilt. 

gird, 

girded,  girt, 

girded,  girt. 

grave, 

graved, 

graven,  graved. 

hang, 

hung,  hanged,1 

hung,  hanged. 

hew, 

hewed, 

hewn,  hewed. 

kneel, 

knelt,  kneeled, 

knelt,  kneeled. 

knit, 

knit,  knitted, 

knit,  knitted. 

light, 

lighted,  lit, 

lighted,  lit. 

mow, 

mowed, 

mown,  mowed. 

pen  (to  enclose), 

pent,  penned, 

pent,  penned. 

quit, 

quit,  quitted, 

quit,  quitted. 

rive, 

rived, 

riven,  rived. 

Regular  when  it  denotes  the  taking  of  life. 


REGULAR    AND    IRREGULAR     VERBS. 


Present. 

rot, 

saw, 

shape, 

shave, 

shear, 

show, 

sow, 

spell, 

spill, 

strew, 

strow, 

swell, 

thrive, 

wax, 

whet, 

work, 


Past. 
rotted, 
sawed, 
shaped, 
shaved, 
sheared, 
showed, 
sowed, 

spelt,  spelled, 
spilt,  spilled, 
strewed, 
strowed, 
swelled, 
thrived,  throve, 
waxed, 

whet,  whetted, 
wrought,  worked, 


Perfect  Participle. 
rotten,  rotted, 
sawn,  sawed, 
shapen,  shaped, 
shaven,  shaved. 
shorn,  sheared, 
shown,  showed. 
sown,  sowed, 
spelt,  spelled, 
spilt,  spilled. 
strewn,  strewed. 
strown,  strowed. 
swollen,  swelled, 
thriven,  thrived, 
waxen,  waxed, 
whet,  whetted, 
wrought,  worked. 


Note  to  Teachers.  —  All  the  irregular  verbs  (so  called)  are  of  Anglo- 
Saxon  origin.  Many  verbs,  formerly  irregular,  are  now  regular;  as,  work, 
•wrought,  wrought,  —  now  regular  ;  reach,  raught,  r aught,  -r-  now  regular ; 
bedeck,  bedight,  bedight,  —  now  regular. 

There  are  also  others  partially  modernized ;  as,  sow,  sowed,  sowed  or  sown. 

In  others,  there  is  a  strong  tendency  to  make  the  past  tense  and  the  per- 
fect participle  alike,  by  retaining  but  one  form  ;  as,  sing,  sung,  sung;  drink, 
drank,  drank  ;  hold,  held,  held ;  get,  got,  got. 


MODES    AND     TENSES    OF    VERBS.  79 

EXERCISES    ON    THE    MODES    AND    TENSES    OF 
VERBS. 

EXERCISE    I. 

The  robin  returns  with  the  spring. 

State  or  write  this  sentence,  putting  the  verb  into  all  the  tenses 
of  the  indicative  mode,  declarative  form  ;  and  then  change  the  sen- 
tences to  the  interrogative  form. 

EXERCISE   II. 

The  pupils  are  studious. 

Put  the  verb  in  this  sentence  into  a/I  the  tenses  of  the  potential 
mode,  declarative  form ;  and  then  change  the  sentences  to  the  inter- 
rogative form. 

EXERCISE    III. 

In  place  of  the  nouns  italicized,  substitute  an  infinitive,  using 
both  forms,  —  the  infinitive  phrase,  and  the  infinitive  in  ing. 

1.  The  sight  of  the  sun  is  pleasant. 

2.  The  defence  of  our  rights  is  lawful. 

3.  Humility  is  becoming  to  the  young. 

4.  Relief  of  the  poor  is  in  the  power  of  wealth. 

5.  The  service  of  God  should  be  the  great  object  of  life. 

6.  The  kind  treatment  of  enemies  makes  them  friends. 

7.  His  object  was  the  acquisition  of  money. 

8.  The  indulgence  of  our  appetites  is  often  injurious. 

9.  Death  for  one's  country  is  sweet. 
IQ.  A  love  for  wisdom  makes  us  wise. 


80  MODES    AND     TENSES    OF    VERBS. 

Substitute  each   of  the  forms  in   the  example  for  the  italicized 
verbs  in  these  sentences,  and  make  such  other  changes  as  the  sense 

requires. 

EXAMPLE. 

Indicative.          Charles  expresses  his  opinion  modestly. 
Potential.  Charles  must  express  his  opinion  modestly. 

f  If  Charles  express  his  opinion  modestly,  he  will 
Subjunctive.    \ 

(      be  listened  to. 

Imperative.         Charles,  express  your  opinion  modestly. 

Charles  is  requested  to  express  his  opinion  mod- 


An  infinitive.  \ 

\      estly. 

A  participle.   \ 


Charles,  expressing  his  opinion  modestly,  was 
eagerly  listened  to. 


EXERCISE    IV. 

1 i )  Pupils  obey  their  teachers,  and  meet  their  approval. 

(2)  We  gain  wisdom  by  experience,  and  become  truly 
wise. 

(3)  The  poor  man  is  frugal  in  his  habits,  and  he  will  be 
respected. 

(4)  The  pupils  make  great  efforts,  and  they  will  succeed. 

(5)  The  men  are  industrious,  and  they  will  thrive. 

Note.  —  This  exercise  may  be  extended  at  the  discretion  of  the  teacher, 
by  requiring  the  sentences  to  be  put  into  any  or  all  of  the  tenses  of  the 
several  modes. 

PROPER  USE  OF  RELATIVE  PRONOUNS. 

That  is  preferable  to  who  or  w/iic/i  in  a  restrictive 
clause ;  as,  The  boys  that  I  saw  reminded  me  of  my 


RELATIVE    PRONOUNS.  8l 

younger  days.  (Here  the  assertion  is  not  made  of 
all  boys,  but  is  restricted  to  the  boys  that  I  saw.) 

That  is  also  preferable  to  who  or  which,  — 

ist,  After  the  word  same. 

2d,  After  an  adjective  in  the  superlative  degree. 

3d,  After  the  interrogative  pronoun  who. 

4th,  When  the  antecedent  consists  of  both  persons 
and  things.  Who  or  which  is  preferable  to  that  when 
used  in  explanation ;  as,  We  see  the  emblem  of  our 
fate  in  floivers,  which  bloom  and  die.  (Here  which 
does  not  restrict  floTvers  to  a  certain  class,  but  adds 
something  that  is  common  to  all  flowers.) 

EXERCISE. 

Supply  the  blanks  with  the  proper  relative  pronouns. 

(1)  This  is  the  same  man we  met  yesterday. 

(2)  The  warrior  is  successful,  is  idolized   by  the 

thoughtless. 

(3)  Washington  was  perhaps  the  most  respected  presi- 
dent   has  filled  the  executive  chair. 

(4)  Who,  has  any  sense  of  justice,  would  act  dif- 
ferently ? 

(5)1  saw  a  boy  and  sled reminded  me  of  old  times. 

(6)  John  Howard,  was  a  true  philanthropist,  died 

greatly  lamented. 

(7)  Wisdom  is  the  best  possession a  man  can  have. 


82  SENTENCES. 

SENTENCES. 

A  sentence  may  be  simple,  compound,  or  complex. 

The  essential  parts  of  a  sentence  are  the  simple 
subject  and  the  simple  predicate. 

A  simple  sentence  contains  but  one  subject  and 
one  predicate ;  as,  A  man 's  happiness  depends  pri- 
marily upon  his  disposition. 

Both  the  subject  and  the  predicate  may  be  limited 
by  phrases  and  words  ;  as,  Every  art  may  prove  dan- 
gerous in  the  hands  of  bad  men. 

The  subject  may  be  compound,  and  the  predicate 
simple ;  or,  the  predicate  may  be  compound,  and 
the  subject  simple;  as,  Virtue  and  vice  are  opposed 
to  eacJi  other.  Steam  serves  man,  and  also  destroys 
him. 

A  compound  sentence  contains  two  or  more 
independent  statements  ;  as,  The  sagacity  of  Newton 
led  him  to  his  great  discovery,  and  he  now  stands  at 
the  htad  of  philosophers. 

A  complex  sentence  contains  one  independent 
statement,  and  one  or  more  subordinate  statements 
called  clauses  ;  as,  It  was  Ccesar  who  won  the  battle. 

Either  or  both  of  the  members  of  a  compound 
sentence  may  be  complex ;  as,  Every  boy  that  expects 
success  in  life  must  be  industrious ;  and  every  man 


EXPANSION.  83 

that  wotild  be  respected,  must  live  so  as   to   deserve 
respect. 

A  complex  sentence  may  have  compound  clauses  ; 
as,  We  all  know  that  evil  communications  corrupt 
good  manners,  and  that  the  companionship  of  the 
virtuous  is  elevating. 

PRACTICAL   EXERCISES    IN    CONSTRUCTION, 
ARRANGEMENT,  AND    EXPRESSION. 

EXPANSION    OF  WORDS    TO    PHRASES. 
EXAMPLE. 

Energetic  men  are  commonly  successful. 

Expanded : — 

Men  of  energy  are,  in  most  cases,  successful. 


EXERCISE    I. 

Expand  the  italicized  words  into  phrases. 

1 i )  The  husbandman's  treasures  are  renewed  yearly. 

(2)  Cromwell  acted  sternly  and  decidedly  on  important 
matters. 

(3)  Important  acts  were  passed  by  the  senate. 

(4)  A  sincere  man  is  a  very  valuable  friend. 

(5)  Tranquil  scenes  soothe  the  wounded  spirit. 

(6)  Large  animals  are  commonly  strong. 


84  EXPANSION. 

(7)  Valiant  men  taste  of  death  but  once. 

(8)  Wealthy  men  should  give  liberally. 

(9)  The  sun  was  then  supposed  to  revolve  round  the 
earth. 

(10)  The  man  boldly  discharged  his  duty. 

EXAMPLE. 

The/#j-/  man  acts  according  to  the  dictates  of  conscience. 

Expanded :  — 

The  man  that  is  just  acts  as  his  conscience  dictates. 


EXERCISE   II. 

Expand  the  italicized  words  and  phrases  into  clauses. 

1 i )  Quarrelsome  persons  are  despised. 

(2)  The  manner  of  his  escape  is  a  profound  mystery. 

(3)  Some  persons  believe  the  planets  to  be  inhabited. 

(4)  Truly  wise  philosophers  are  fewer  than  very  learned 
scholars. 

(5)  His  guilt  or  innocence  is  still  uncertain. 

(6)  With  patience  he  might  have  succeeded. 

(7)  The  battle  having  been  fought,  the  general  began 
to  estimate  his  loss. 

(8)  No  one  doubts  the  roundness  of  the  earth. 

(9)  The  barricade  being  forced,  the  crowd  rushed  out. 
(10)  He  believed  his  health  to  be  improving. 


CONTRA  CTION.  8  5 

CONTRACTION    OF    COMPLEX    INTO    SIMPLE    SENTENCES. 

This    may  be   done   by  changing   a   clause   to   a 
phrase. 

EXAMPLE. 

When  father  returned,  the  boys  received  presents. 

Contracted  :  — 

On  father's  return,  the  boys  received  presents. 


EXERCISE    I. 

(1)  One  man,  who  had  a  good  trade,  lost  his  luck  in 
fishing. 

(2)  The  gentleman  will  be  pleased  if  his  son  improves. 

(3)  When  the  gentleman  left  town,  he  probably  re- 
turned to  his  family. 

(4)  The  man  who  is  often  changing  his  friendships,  can 
never  have  a  true  friend. 

(5)  While  we  cling  to  our  friends,  the  unseen  hand  of 
Providence  tears  them  from  our  embrace. 

(6)  The  sweet  breeze,  that   makes   the   green   leaves 
dance,  shall  cool  thy  fevered  brow. 

(7)  He  leaned  back  in  his  carriage  while  he  was  carried 
along. 

(8)  When  the  boy  saw  his  father,  he  ran  to  embrace  him. 

(9)  When  the  teacher   found   his   pupils   idle,  he   re- 
proved them. 

(10)  After  the  gentleman  had  settled  his  affairs,  he  left 
the  country. 


86  CONTRA  C  TION. 

EXERCISE   II. 

(1)  As   he  walked   towards   the   bridge,  he    met   his 
friend. 

(2)  When  he  had  spoken  two  hours,  the  member  re- 
sumed his  seat. 

(3)  The  ground  is  never  frozen  in  Palestine,  as  the  cold 
is  not  severe. 

(4)  Socrates  declared  that  virtue  is  its  own  reward. 

(5)  When  darkness  broke  away,  the  town  wore  a  strange 
aspect. 

(6)  After  he  had  suppressed  the  conspiracy,  he  led  his 
troops  into  Italy. 

(7)  There  are  many  ills  that  we  cannot  avoid. 

(8)  As  the  door  was  open,  the  boy  entered  the  house. 

(9)  After  he  met  his  friend,  he  returned  with  him  to 
his  house. 

(10)  Since  I  saw  you,  I  have  heard  from  my  father. 

CONTRACTION    OF  COMPOUND    SENTENCES    INTO  COMPLEX. 

This  may  be  done  by  using  a  subordinate  conjunc- 
tion or  a  relative  pronoun  to  connect  two  of  its 
members. 

EXAMPLE. 

The  sea  spent  its  fury,  and  then  it  became  calm. 

Contracted  :  — 

When  the  sea  had  spent  its  fury,  it  became  calm. 


•^'C':'  -tr  N^\ 

<  >> 

rrti 


EXERCISE. 


(1)  The  premises  were  admitted,  and  the  conclusion 
followed. 

(2)  The  officers  were  chosen,  and  then  the   meeting 
adjourned. 

(3)  Nature  is  full  of  unknown  things,  and  the  oppor- 
tunities for  discovery  are  still  great. 

(4)  The  sun  rose,  and  the  gray  mist  evaporated. 

(5)  My  country  has  done  me  justice,  and  I  have  no 
reason  to  complain. 

(6)  The  stars  went  out,  and  the  wind   came   roaring 
down  the  mountain. 

(7)  It  was  summer,  and  the  heat  was  intense. 

(8)  The  charms  of  spring  were  past,  and  the  glow  of 
summer  succeeded. 

(9)  The  crime  was  great,  and  the  punishment  should  be 
severe. 

(10)  Nature  had  put  a  coat  of  many  colors  upon  the 
woodlands,  and  they  were  gay  and  beautiful. 

(  ii  )  Expert  men  can  execute,  and  judge  of  particulars, 
but  the  general  counsels  come  best  from  the  learned. 

(12)  The  boy  wished   to   secure    the   good-will   of  his 
teacher,  and  he  performed  his  duties  faithfully. 

(13)  Dryden  knew  more  of  man  in  his  general  nature, 
but  Pope  knew  more  of  him  in  his  local  manners. 


88 


COMPOUND  SENTENCES. 


SIMPLE    SENTENCES    UNITED    TO    FORM    COMPOUND 
SENTENCES. 


EXAMPLE. 

Man  is  a  rational  being. 

Man  is  endowed  with  the  highest  capacity  for  happiness. 

Man  often  mistakes  his  best  interests. 

Man  often  pursues  trifles  with  all  his  energies. 

Man  considers  trifles  as  the  chief  object  of  desire. 

United  and  contracted  :  — 

Man  is  a  rational  being,  endowed  with  the  highest  capa- 
city for  happiness ;  but  he  often  mistakes  his  best  interests, 
and  pursues  trifles  with  all  his  energies,  considering  them 
the  chief  object  of  desire. 


EXERCISE. 

Men  of  courage  do  not  fear  danger. 

They  do  not  needlessly  run  into  danger. 

They  avoid  danger  except  in  the  performance  of 

duty. 

We  acquire  knowledge  by  reading. 
We  acquire  knowledge  by  study. 
We  acquire  knowledge  by  conversation. 
We  acquire  knowledge  by  observation. 
We  prepare  ourselves  for  usefulness  and  happiness. 
Knowledge  gives  us  power. 
Power  adds  to  our  self-respect. 


(0 


(3H 


TNVERSTON.  89 

Labor  strengthens  the  body. 
Labor  promotes  health. 
Labor  gives  a  relish  to  food. 
Labor  helps  us  overcome  obstacles. 
Labor  is  rewarded  by  success. 
Idleness  weakens  the  body. 
Idleness  destroys  the  appetite. 
Idleness  brings  on  disease. 
Wealth  may  give  us  the  respect  of  the  ignorant. 
,  Wealth  may  give  us  the  respect  of  the  corrupt. 
Wealth  will  not  recommend  us  to  the  wise. 
Wealth  will  not  recommend  us  to  the  good. 
The  soldiers  fled  in  confusion. 
The  soldiers  were  pursued  by  the  enemy. 
(5)     The  soldiers  escaped  with  difficulty. 
The  soldiers  entered  the  city. 
The  soldiers  shut  down  the  gates. 

INVERSION. 
EXAMPLE. 

New  races  of  animals  rise  into  existence  with  each  suc- 
ceeding month. 

Inverted  :  — 

With  each  succeeding  month,  new  races  of  animals  rise 
into  existence. 

New  races  of  animals,  with  each  succeeding  month,  rise 
into  existence. 


90  INVERSION. 

EXERCISE    I. 

Invert  the  following  sentences  in  as  many  ways  as  possible,  and 
punctuate  the  inverted  sentences. 

1 i )  Science  is  conquering  the  great  obstacles  of  nature 
by  its  application  to  the  arts  of  life. 

(2)  While    hope    remains    there    can    be    no    positive 
misery. 

(3)  New  races  of  animals  rise  into  existence  with  each 
succeeding  month. 

(4)  This  destruction  raged  from  the  gates  of  Madras  to 
the  gates  of  Tanjore  for  eighteen  months  without  intermission. 

(5)  I  found  the  following  fragment  in  looking  over  the 
papers  of  an  acquaintance. 

(6)  The  end  of  all  government  is  the  happiness  of  the 
governed. 

(7)  In   the  midst   of  perplexities   it   is  wrong   to   be 
discouraged. 

(8)  How  beautiful  to  the  eye  of  faith  is  the   sunset 
hour  ! 

(9)  According  to  the   popular  notion,  a  genius  learns 
without  study,  and  knows  without  learning. 

(10)  When  the  farmer  came  down  to  breakfast  the  next 
morning,  he  declared  that  his  watch  had  gained  half  an  hour 
in  the  night. 

Note  to  Teachers.  —  These  sentences  may  be  used  for  analysis,  and 
the  pupil  will  see  that  the  arrangement  only  is  changed,  and  not  the  con- 
struction. 


INVERSION.  91 

EXERCISE   II. 

Invert  as  above,  and  punctuate.     (See  Rules.) 

(1)  A  straw  will  furnish  the  occasion  when  people  are 
determined  to  quarrel. 

(2)  The  man  of  long  experience,  who  seldom  errs  in 
judgment,  is  a  suitable  person  to  be  consulted. 

(3)  I  shall  not  contradict  you  if  you  praise  them  for 
their  excellence. 

(4)  But  whatever  may  be  our  fate,  be  assured  that  this 
declaration  will  stand. 

(5)  Conscience  remonstrates  while  we  are  doing  wrong. 

(6)  Conscience   reproaches    us    after  we    have    done 
wrong. 

(7)  In  the  present  exercise,  emphasis  is  the  subject  to 
which  the  pupil's  attention  is  called. 

(8)  Wherever  Hope  went  he  diffused  around  him  glad- 
ness and  joy. 

(9)  I  knew  very  well  that  he  could  do  it. 
(10)  We  acquire  knowledge  by  patient  study. 

EXERCISE   III. 

Invert  and  punctuate  as  above. 

(1)  In   rural  occupations  there  is  nothing  mean  and 
debasing. 

(2)  With  such  pomp  as  this  is  Merry  Christmas  now 
ushered  in,  though  only  a  single   star   heralded   the   first 
Christmas. 


92 


INVERSION. 


(3)  Among  the  Indians  it  is  reckoned  uncivil,  in  trav- 
elling, for  strangers  to  enter  a  village  abruptly,  without  giving 
notice  of  their  approach. 

(4)  We  ought  not  to  think,  while  dangers  are  afar  off, 
that  we  are  secure,  unless  we  try  to  guard  against  them. 

(5)!  had  long  before  repented  of  my  roving  course  of 
life,  but  I  could  not  free  my  mind  from  the  love  of  travel. 

(6)  Early  in  the  morning,  before  the  family  was  stirring, 
the  old  clock,  that  had  stood  for  fifty  years  in  the  farmer's 
kitchen,  without  giving  its  owner  any  cause  of  complaint, 
suddenly  stopped. 

(7)  Between  passion  and  lying  there  is  little  difference. 

(8)  So  far  as  I  can  judge,  the  book  is  well  written. 

(9)  I  obtained  under  his  instruction,  a  knowledge  of  his 
art. 

(10)  The  quiet  vale  of  Chamouni  lay  behind  us  dotted 
with  romantic  hamlets. 

COMPOUND    SUBJECT. 

Unite  these  sentences  so  as  to  assert  that  great  praise  is  due  to 
both. 

The  boy's  father  deserves  great  praise. 
The  boy's  mother  deserves  great  praise. 
United:  — 

The  boy's  father  and  mother  deserve  great  praise. 
Deny  that  great  praise  is  due  to  both  of  them. 
The  boy's  father  and  mother  do  not  both  deserve  great 
praise. 


INVERSION'.  93 

Assert  that  great  praise  is  due  to  one  of  them,  without  specify- 
ing which. 

Either  the  boy's  father  or  mother  deserves  great  praise. 
Deny  that  great  praise  is  due  to  either  of  them. 

Neither    the   boy's   father    nor    mother    deserves    great 
praise. 

State  that  great  praise   is  due  to  one  of  them,  and  not  to  the 
other. 

The  boy's  mother,  but  not   the   father,   deserves   great 
praise. 

EXERCISE    I. 

Write  the  following  sentences  in  the  several  ways  pointed  out  in 
the  model,  uniting  the  two  sentences  in  each  exercise. 

1 i )  John  recites  the  lesson  well. 
James  recites  the  lesson  well. 

(2)  Charles  has  gone  to  the  country. 
William  has  gone  to  the  country. 

(3)  Exercise  promotes  health. 
Temperance  promotes  health. 

(4)  A  gentleman  was  accommodated  with  board. 
A  lady  was  accommodated  with  board. 

(5)  An  old  man  attempts  to  cross  the  river. 
A  boy  attempts  to  cross  the  river. 

(6)  Charles  has  gone  to  school. 
Anna  has  gone  to  school. 


94  ANAL  YSIS. 

ANALYSIS. 

In  Analysis,  it  will  be  found  convenient  to  have  a 
general  form  (not  to  be  too  strictly  adhered  to),  but 
sufficient  to  secure  a  well-arranged  statement  of  the 
construction  of  the  sentences  analyzed. 

With  this  view,  the  following  models,  used,  with 
slight  modifications,  in  many  of  our  best  schools, 
are  suggested. 

METHOD. 

a. 

Kind  of  sentence. 

b. 

Write  sentence  in  natural  order ;  separate  en- 
larged subject  from  enlarged  predicate;  underline 
simple  subject  and  simple  predicate. 

c. 
Clauses  :  kind,  and  what  they  modify. 

d. 
Phrases  :  kind,  and  what  they  modify. 

e. 
Part  of  speech,  and  construction  of  words  (parsing). 

MODELS. 
I. 

"  A  sunbeam  played  through  a  hole  in  the  roof  of  a  barn." 


ANALYSIS.  95 

a. 

Simple,  declarative,  containing  one  statement. 

b. 

A  sunbeam  I  played  through  a  hole  in  the  roof  of  a  barn. 

c. 

Not  any. 

d. 

"through  —  hole,"  adv.,  mod.. played. 
"  in  —  roof,"  adj.,  mod.  hole. 
"  of —  barn,"  adj.,  mod.  roof. 

e. 

"  sunbeam,"  noun,  subject  of  played. 

"played,"  verb,  predicate  of  sunbeam. 

"through,"  prep.,  connects  played  and  hole. 

"  hole,"  noun,  object  of  through. 

"  in,"  prep.,  connects  hole  and  roof. 

"  roof,"  noun,  object  of  in. 

"of,"  prep.,  connects  roof  and  barn. 

"  barn,"  noun,  object  of  of. 

II. 

"  Your  father  will  go  to  the  exhibition  to-morrow,  but  he 
will  not  take  you  with  him." 

a. 

Compound  declarative,  containing  two  independent  state- 
ments. 


96  ANAL  YSIS. 

b. 
Your  father  |  will  go  to  the  exhibition  to-morrow, 

but 
he    will  not  take  you  with  him. 

c. 

Not  any. 

d. 

"  to  —  exhibition,"  adv.,  mod.  will  go. 
"  with  him,"  adv.,  mod.  will  take. 

III. 

"  The  landscape   that  fills  the   traveller  with  rapture  is 
regarded  with  indifference  by  him  who  sees   it   every  day 

from  his  window." 

a. 

Complex,  declarative,  containing  one  independent  state- 
ment and  two  clauses. 

b. 

The  landscape  that   fills   the   traveller   with   rapture  |  is 
regarded  with  indifference  by  him  who  sees  it  every  day  from 

his  window. 

c. 

"  that  I  fills  the  traveller  with  rapture,"  adj.,  mod.  landscape. 
"  who  I  sees  it  every  day  from  his  window,"  adj.,  mod.  him. 

d. 

"  with  rapture,"  adv.,  mod.  fills. 

"with  indifference,"  adv.,  mod.  is  regarded. 

"  by  him,"  adv.,  mod.  is  regarded. 

"  from  window,"  adv.,  mod.  sees. 


ANAL  YSIS.  97 

ANALYSIS. 

(1)  Kind  of  sentence. 

(2)  Entire  subject  of  sentence. 

(3)  Entire  predicate  of  sentence. 

(4)  Simple  subject  and  its  modifiers. 

(5)  Simple  predicate  and  its  modifiers. 

(6)  Kind  of  clauses,  and  what  they  modify. 

(7)  Entire  subject  of  clause. 

(8)  Entire  predicate  of  clause. 

(9)  Kind  of  phrases,  and  what  they  modify. 
(10)  Connectives. 

MODELS. 
I. 

"  A  sunbeam  played  through  a  hole  in  the  roof  of  the 
barn." 

(1)  This  is  a  simple   declarative  sentence,  containing 
one  statement. 

(2)  The  entire  subject  is  a  sunbeam. 

(3)  The  entire  predicate  is  played  through  a  hole  in  the 
roof  of  the  barn. 

(4)  The  simple  subject  is  sunbeam,  modified  by  a. 

(5)  The  simple  predicate  is  played,   modified  by  the 
adverbial  phrase. 

(6)  There  are  no  clauses. 

(7)  • 

(8)  . 


98  ANAL  YSIS. 

(9)  The  phrases  are,  — 

through  a  hole,  adv.,  mod.. played. 
in  the  roof,  adj.,  mod.  hole, 
of  the  darn,  adj.,  mod.  roof. 
(10)   Connectives  are  through,  in,  and  of. 

II. 

"  Your  father  will  go  to  the  exhibition  to-morrow,  but  he 
will  not  take  you  with  him." 

1 i )  This  is  a  compound  declarative  sentence,  containing 
two  statements. 

(2)  The  entire  subject  of  first  statement  is  your  father. 

(3)  The  entire  predicate  of  first  statement  is,  will  go  to 
the  exhibition  to-morrow. 

(4)  Simple  subject  is  father,  modified  by  your. 

(5)  Simple  predicate  is  will  go,  modified  by  the  adverb- 
ial phrase,  and  the  adverb  to-morrow. 

(6)  There  are  no  clauses. 

(7)  -   -• 

(3)   — • 

(9)  The  phrase  is  to  the  exhibition,  adv.,  mod.  will  go. 

(10)  The  connective  is  to. 

1 i )  The  second  statement  is,  he  will  not  take  you  with 
him. 

(2)  Entire  subject  is  he. 

(3)  Entire  predicate  is  will  not  take  you  with  him. 


ANALYSIS.  99 

(4)  Simple  subject  is  he. 

(5)  Simple  predicate  is  will  take,  made  negative  by  not, 
and  modified  by  the  object  you  and  the  adverbial  phrase. 

(6)  There  are  no  clauses. 

(7)  • 

(8)  . 

(9)  The  phrase  is  with  him,  adv.,  mod.  will  take. 

(10)  The  connectives  in  entire  sentence  are,  to,  but,  and 
with. 

III. 

"The  landscape  which  fills  the  traveller  with  rapture  is 
regarded  with  indifference  by  him  who  sees  it  every  day, 
from  his  window." 

(1)  This  is  a  complex  declarative  sentence  ;  it  contains 
one  principal  and  two  subordinate  statements. 

(2)  Entire  subject  of  sentence  is  the  landscape  which 
fills  the  traveller  with  rapture. 

(3)  Entire  predicate  is  is  regarded,  and  the  rest  of  the 
sentence. 

(4)  Simple  subject  is  landscape,  modified  by  the  and 
the  adjective  clause. 

(5)  Simple    predicate    is  is  regarded,  modified  by  the 
two  adverbial  phrases. 

(6)  The  clauses  are,  which  fills  the  traveller  with  rap- 
ture, adj.,  mod.  landscape  ;  and,  who  sees  it  every  day  from 
his  window,  adj.,  mod.  him. 


100  ANALYSIS. 

(7)  Entire  subject  of  first  clause  is  which. 

Entire  predicate  of  first  clause  is  fills  the  traveller 
with  rapture. 

(8)  Entire  subject  of  second  clause  is  who. 

Entire  predicate  of  second  clause  is  sees  it  every 
day  from  his  window. 

(9)  The  phrases  are,  — 

with  rapture,  adv.,  mod.  fills. 
with  indifference,  adv.,  mod.  is  regarded, 
by  him,  adv.,  mod.  is  regarded, 
every  day,  adv.,  mod.  sees, 
from  his  window,  adv.,  mod.  sees. 

(10)  The  connectives  are,  which,  with,  with,  by,  who, 
and  from. 

When  pupils  have  become  familiar  with  the  rules 
of  syntax,  and  their  application  in  constructions  not 
beyond  their  capacity,  it  seems  a  waste  of  time  to 
go  through  with  the  usual  forms  of  parsing,  which 
soon  becomes  a  formal  and  monotonous  exercise, 
awakening  little  thought.  Questions  like  those  in 
the  following  example  will,  it  is  believed,  create 
an  interest,  and  familiarize  pupils  with  grammatical 
principles. 

These  questions  are  given,  not  to  be  followed 
implicitly,  but  as  suggestions  to  be  used  at  the 
discretion  of  teachers. 


ANALYSIS.  10 1 

EXAMPLE. 

"The  tall  oaks  which  grow  in  the  forest  wave  their 
branches  gracefully  in  the  cold  March  winds." 

(1)  Tell  the  use  of  the  following  words  in  the  sentence 
above  :  tall,  oaks,  which,  grow,  wave,  branches,  gracefully, 
cold,  March,  winds. 

(2)  Tell  the  use  of  the  clause,  which  grow  in  the  forest. 

(3)  Tell  the  use  of  the  phrases,  in  the  forest,  and  in  the 
cold  March  winds. 

(4)  Write  all  the  forms  of  the  word  tall,  and  tell  when 
each  should  be  used. 

(5)  Write  all  the   forms  of  oaks,  and  tell  when  each 
should  be  used. 

(6)  What  time  is  expressed  by  the  word  grow  ? 

(7)  What  time  would  be  expressed  if  it  were  grew  ? 

(8)  If  the  word  have  should  be  used  before  it,  what 
form  of  the  verb  would  it  take  ? 

(9)  What  other  words  besides  have  would  require  the 
same  form? 

(10)  Write  all  the  forms  of  wave,  and  give  an  example 
of  each  form  in  a  sentence. 

(n)  How  could  the  word  wave  be  made  to  express 
future  time? 

(12)  What  is  the  use  of  the  words  shall and  w///when 
they  are  prefixed  to  verbs? 

(13)  What  are  auxiliaries? 


APPENDIX. 


MODE. 

THE  potential  mode  might,  perhaps,  be  more  properly 
called  another  form  of  the  indicative. 

Both  modes  are  used  to  declare,  and  to  ask  a  question. 

Both  may  be  used  either  in  an  independent  statement, 
or  in  a  clause. 

Both  may  be  used  subjunctively,  to  express  a  condition. 

In  fact,  they  are  necessarily  used  for  this  purpose  in  all 
but  the  past  tense. 

There  seems,  then,  to  be  no  way.  of  defining  either  the 
indicative  or  the  potential  mode,  so  as  to  exclude  the  other, 
except  by  the  form. 

I  can  do  it,  and  /  am  able  to  do  it,  mean  the  same  thing. 
He  can  go  if  he  wishes,  and  he  will  go  if  he  can.  These 
expressions  show  that  both  modes  may  be  used  in  declara- 
tive statements  and  in  expressing  conditions. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  imperative  has  the  form  of  the 
indicative,  but  is  used  for  a  different  purpose. 

103 


104  APPENDIX. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Grimm  says,  that  "  while  /  am  means  I  am,  bed  means 
I  shall  be.  The  Anglo-Saxon  beb  (be)  has  not  a  present,  but 
a  future  sense.  In  the  older  languages,  it  is  only  where  the 
form  am  is  not  found,  that  be  has  the  power  of  a  present 
form."  (See  Fowler's  Eng.  Gram.,  p.  268.) 

It  seems  by  this,  that  the  present  practice  of  confining 
the  forms  Jf  I  be,  and  If  it  rain,  to  their  use  only  when 
reference  is  had  to  future  time,  is  consistent  with  original 

usage. 

TENSE. 

Although  we  define  tense  as  denoting  distinctions  of  time, 
it  is  only  in  a  very  general  sense  that  the  time  of  an  action 
is  expressed  by  the  verb.  It  is  more  commonly  expressed 
by  a  phrase  or  an  adverb. 

In  fact,  the  present  and  the  future  of  the  indicative  may 
be  used  in  expressing  present  or  future  time  ;  as,  The  boys 
go  back  next  Saturday  week.  I  shall  or  will  go  now.  I 
shall  or  will  go  to-morrow. 

The  potential  present  and  past  tenses  may  be  used  in 
expressing  present  or  future  time ;  as,  He  may  go  now,  or 
He  may  go  to-morrow.  He  could  go  now  if  he  wished.  He 
could  go  to-morrow  if  it  were  not  for  an  engagement. 

The  past  form  of  the  potential  is  used  in  expressing  past 
time,  only  in  clauses  when  it  follows  a  past  tense  of  the 
verb  in  the  principal  statement;  as,  I  feared  that  he  would 
overtake  me. 


APPENDIX.  105 

SEQUENCE    OF    TENSES. 

May,  shall,  will,  are  regularly  used  in  clauses,  after  the 
present  and  future  tenses  in  the  independent  statement; 
and  might,  could,  would,  should,  after  the  past  tenses ;  as, 

I  come 

I  have  come 

>  that  I  may  see  for  myself. 
I  shall  come  ' 


I  will  come 

I  came 

I  had  come 


!•  that  I  might  see  for  myself. 


Verbs  of  asking,  teaching,  and  a  few  others,  have  two 
direct  objects,  —  one  of  the  person,  the  other  of  the  thing; 
as,  /  taught  him  grammar. 

That  there  are  two  direct  objects,  is  shown  by  the  fact 
that  they  admit  of  two  regular  passives  ;  as,  He  was  taiight 
grammar  by  me  ;  and,  Grammar  was  taught  him  by  me.  I 
asked  him  this  question.  This  question  was  asked  him  by 
me.  He  was  asked  this  question  by  me. 

The  construction  is  the  same  after  certain  verbs,  when 
one  of  the  objects  is  an  infinitive,  or  verbal  noun ;  as,  / 
heard  him  step.  I  saw  him  run.  Two  passives  may  be 
formed  thus  :  His  stepping  was  heard  by  me.  He  was  heard 

1  The  past  form  is  sometimes  used  after  the  present  perfect,  since  it  represents  a 
past  action,  complete  at  the  present  time;  as,  I  may  have  told  you,  that  you  might 
be  on  your  guard. 


106  APPENDIX. 

to  step  by  me.  He  was  seen  to  run  by  me.  His  running 
was  seen  by  me. 

Need  and  dare,  before  another  verb  in  a  negative  sentence, 
do  not  take  the  inflection  s  in  the  third  person  singular  of 
the  present  indicative ;  as,  //  need  scarcely  be  said.  Alt 
that  need  be  said.  —  NEWMAN.  But  if  to  is  expressed  with 
the  second  verb,  the  s  is  added ;  as,  It  needs  to  be  said. 
He  dares  to  tell  the  truth. 

Needs  is  sometimes  an  adverb  (meaning  necessarily)  ;  as, 
He  must  needs  go  through  Samaria. 


Methinks  is  formed  by  the  impersonal  verb  think,  mean- 
ing seem,  and  the  dative  me ;  and  is  literally  rendered,  it 
seems  to  me. 


Had  as  lief,  had  better,  had  best,  had  like,  had  as  good, 
and  had  rather,  are  sometimes  criticised ;  but  they  are 
idioms  which  have  been  in  use  from  early  times,  and  are 
abundantly  supported  by  the  best  authorities.  Would  as 
lief  and  would  rather  are  also  used  by  good  writers. 

"  I  had  rather  be  a  dog,  and  bay  the  moon." — SHAKSPEARE. 
"  I  had  rather  be  a  doorkeeper,"  etc.  —  Ps.  ixxxiv.  10. 
"  I  had  much  rather  be  myself  the  slave, 

And  wear  the  bonds,  than  fasten  them  on  him."  —  COWPER. 
"  I  had  as  /zV/'not  be,  as  live  to  be 

In  awe  of  such  a  thing  as  I  myself."  —  SHAKSPEARE. 


APPENDIX.  lO/ 

"  Some  things  the  state  had  better  leave  alone ;  others  it  had 

better  not."  —  M.  ARNOLD. 

"But  if  I  like  the  gay  equipage  so  well  as  to  go  out  of  my 
road,  I  had  better  have  gone  afoot."  —  R.  W.  EMERSON. 

"  Is  it  true  that  Johnson  had  better  have  gone  on  producing 
more  Irenes,  instead  of  writing  Lives  of  the  Poets  ? " 

M.  ARNOLD. 


In  Anglo-Saxon  the  simple  infinitive  was  not  preceded  by 
the  preposition  to. 

It  was  only  the  dative  case  that  was  preceded  by  to. 

Some  time  in  the  latter  part  of  the  twelfth  century,  to 
came  into  use  before  the  simple  infinitive ;  and  the  two 
infinitives  —  the  dative,  or  gerundial,  and  the  simple  form  — 
became  confounded. 

But  the  gerund  may  now  be  distinguished  from  the  sim- 
ple infinitive,  by  the  fact  that  it  generally  expresses  purpose 
or  intention.  It  is  equivalent  to  for  with  an  infinitive  in  ing : 
as,  A  house  to  let  =  for  letting;  Ready  to  sail '  =  for  sailing; 
he  is  the  man  to  do  it  =  for  doing  it. 

Earle  says,  "That  which  we  call  the  English  infinitive 
verb,  such  as  to  live,  to  die,  is  quite  a  modern  thing,  and  is 
characteristic  of  English  as  opposed  to  Saxon.  It  first  ex- 
isted as  a  phrasal  adverb,  and  was  a  method  of  attaching 
one  verb  to  another  in  an  adverbial  manner.  In  process 
of  time  it  detached  itself,  and  assumed  an  independent 
position." 


108  APPENDIX. 

Bain  says  in  his  "Higher  English  Grammar"  (p.  156), 
"The  infinitive  acts  the  part  of  a  noun-phrase  when  pre- 
ceded, as  it  usually  is,  by  the  preposition  to ;  as,  He  is  a 
fool  to  throw  away  such  a  chance ;  and  the  manner  or  cir- 
cumstance or  explanation  of  his  being  so  is,  for  the  throwing 
away  of  such  a  chance"  This  phrase,  like  others  formed 
by  a  noun  and  preposition,  may  perform  the  office  of  a 
noun,  an  adjective,  or  an  adverb. 

This  justifies  what  has  been  treated  as  an  anomalous  use 
of  the  infinitive  (or  verbal  noun)  in  such  sentences  as,  He 
was  ready  to  go ;  He  was  wise  enough  to  remain  silent. 

The  construction  therefore  is  not  anomalous,  since  a 
phrase  consisting  of  a  preposition  and  a  noun  may  perform 
the  office  of  a  noun,  an  adjective,  or  an  adverb. 


The  English  verb  has  no  imperfect  passive  participle. 
To  supply  this  want,  the  imperfect  active  is  often  used  in  a 
passive  sense  :  as,  The  house  is  building ;  The  debt  is  owing ; 
The  drums  are  beating. 

The  evil  of  employing  the  same  form  in  two  meanings  has 
given  rise  to  the  expressions,  The  house  is  being  built.  The 
drums  are  being  beaten. 

These  forms  seem  cumbrous  and  stiff,  but  they  are  now 
used  by  many  good  writers.  (See  Bain,  p.  116.) 

Active  forms  with  passive  significations  are  found  in  infini- 
tives :  as,  A  house  to  let;  good  to  eat ;  books  to  sell;  he  is 
to  blame.  The  infinitive  is  here  a  gerund. 


APPENDIX.  IO9 

It  is  common  to  call  as  a  relative  pronoun  in  the  expres- 
sions, such  as,  as  many  as. 

There  seems,  however,  to  be  merely  an  ellipsis  of  the 
relative  and  its  antecedent ;  as,  /  gave  him  such  articles  as 
were  in  my  possession.  That  is,  I  gave  him  such  articles 
as  \those  are  which~\  were  in  my  possession.  As  many  as 
[those  were  who~\  received  him,  etc. 

When  the  ellipsis  is  supplied,  we  see  that  as  is  a  con- 
junction. 

The  same  ellipsis  exists  after  than  in  the  following  sen- 
tence :  I  paid  him  more  money  than  was  due.  That  is,  I 
paid  him  more  money  than  [the  money  that]  was  due. 


Such  expressions  as  two  first,  three  last,  are  often  criti- 
cised, but  are  fully  sanctioned  by  good  usage  ;  as, 

"  My  two  last  letters."  —  ADDISON. 

"  The  two  first  lines.'1  —  BLAIR. 

"At  the  two  last  schools."  —  JOHNSON. 

"  The  three  first  of  his  longer  poems."  —  SOUTHEV. 

Arnold  says,  "  Persons  write  first  three  to  prevent  the 
seeming  absurdity  of  implying  that  more  than  one  thing  can 
be  first ;  but  it  is  equally  absurd  to  talk  about  the  first  three 
when,  as  often  happens,  there  is  no  second  three." 

Besides,  if  the  criticism  is  just,  first  and  last,  and  indeed 
all  superlatives  can  be  used  only  with  singular  nouns ;  and  it 
is  equally  improper  to  speak  of  the  first  years  of  a  lawyer's 
practice,  the  first  essays  of  a  writer,  the  two  wisest  men,  or 


I  10  APPENDIX. 

the  two  tallest  men.  For,  if  we  insist  that  there  can  be  but 
one  first,  it  is  clear  there  can  be  but  one  wisest  man,  one 
tallest  man,  etc. 

But  we  do  not  commonly  speak  of  the  wisest  two  men, 
the  tallest  two  men. 

The  general  rule  seems  to  be,  that  the  word  to  which  we 
wish  to  call  special  attention  is  placed  first. 

Both  forms  are  proper,  and  are  used  by  the  best  writers. 


"The  occurrence  of  the  with  a  comparative  —  as,  the 
more,  the  better — is  now  shown  by  grammarians  not  to  afford 
an  example  of  the  definite  article.  The  in  such  combina- 
tions, although  spelt  like  the  article,  is  in  reality  another 
word ;  [meaning]  by  how  much,  the  more,  by  so  much,  the 

better."  BAIN'S  Higher  English  Grammar,  p.  35. 

What  with,  in  such  sentences  as,  What  with  the  cold 
weather  and  feeble  health,  I  have  been  confined  to  the  house, 
is  an  idiom,  not  to  be  analyzed,  but  used  as  an  equivalent  of 
the  adverb  partly. 

Bain  says,  "The  rule  (that  the  comparative  must  be  used 
when  two  things  are  compared)  is  not  strictly  adhered  to. 
Writers  and  speakers  continually  use  the  superlative  in  com- 
paring two  things  :  as,  the  least  of  the  two ;  the  best  of  the 
two.  Like  other  dual  forms,  the  comparative  degree  is 
superfluous,  and  perspicuity  would  be  equally  well  served  by 


APPENDIX.  I  I  I 

using  the  same  form  of  comparison  for  two,  or  for  more 
than  two."  One  having  but  two  children  speaks  of  his 
oldest  and  youngest  child. 

Campbell,  in  "The  Philosophy  of  Rhetoric,"  says,  in 
reference  to  the  expression,  He  is  the  taller  man  of  the  two, 
"  Only  in  such,  the  comparative  has  the  definite  article  the 
prefixed  to  it,  and  it  is  construed  precisely  as  the  superla- 
tive ;  nay,  both  degrees  are  in  such  cases  used  indiscrimi- 
nately. We  say  rightly,  This  is  the  weaker  of  the  two,  or 
the  weakest  of  the  two." 

There  is  sometimes  a  question  whether  to  use  an  adjec- 
tive or  an  adverb  after  certain  verbs. 

The  principle  seems  to  be,  that  when  the  limiting  word 
expresses  a  quality  or  state  of  the  subject  or  the  object, 
rather  than  the  manner  of  the  action,  an  adjective  is  proper. 

This  construction  takes  place  with  the  verbs,  be,  look, 
feel,  taste,  smell,  seem,  appear,  etc. :  as,  The  berry  tastes 
sour.  The  flower  smells  sweet.  Velvet  feels  smooth.  The 
sentence  sounds  awkward  and  harsh.  The  man  felt  bad 
about  it.  The  boy  felt  mean.  The  letter  came  safe.  These 
persons  ranked  high  among  the  nobility.  He  went  to  his 
work  as  gay  as  a  lark. 

"  The  blow  fell  heavy  on  the  family."  —  MACAULAY. 

"  The  stream  ran  deep  and  strong" 

"  The  lads  came  back  safe" 

"  While  he  lived,  his  power  stood  firm."       " 


112  APPENDIX. 

"SHALL"    AND    "WILL." 

Shall  originally  meant  obligation,  —  a  sense  still  retained 
in  its  past  tense  should. 

Chaucer  uses  the  expression,  "  The  faith  I  shall  to  God  " 
(meaning  owe  to  God). 

Will,  on  the  other  hand,  means  intention. 

In  the  first  person,  except  in  making  a  promise,  we  use 
shall,  admitting  our  determination  to  be  a  duty. 

In  the  second  and  third  persons,  we  use  will  as  a  pre- 
sumption that  the  act  is  voluntary. 

Shall  used  in  the  second  and  third  persons  expresses  the 
determination  of  the  speaker,  and  is  equivalent  to  a  com- 
mand. It  is  the  form  of  imposing  legal  obligations ;  as, 
Thou  shalt  not  steal. 


Is  it  proper  to  end  a  sentence  with  a  preposition? 

Dr.  Campbell,  in  the  "  Philosophy  of  Rhetoric,"  says,  "  In 
English  the  preposition  is  often  placed  not  only  after  the 
noun,  but  at  a  considerable  distance  from  it,  as  in  the  fol- 
lowing example  :  The  infirmary  was,  indeed,  never  so  full 
as  on  this  day,  which  I  was  at  some  loss  to  account  for" 

The  practice  of  throwing  the  preposition  to  the  end  of  the 
sentence  (especially  when  used  with  the  restrictive  relative 
thai)  is  of  Teutonic  origin,  and,  as  might  be  expected,  an 
old  English  idiom. 

In  the  latter  part  of  the  seventeenth  and  the  first  part  of 
the  eighteenth  century,  it  was  regarded  as  inelegant.  Since 


APPENDIX.  1 1 3 

that  time,  there  has  been  a  tendency  to  restore  the  English 
idiom,  as  less  cumbersome  and  more  spirited.  Bain,  in  his 
"  Higher  English  Grammar,"  gives  the  preference  to  such 
expressions  as,  that  I  was  witness  of,  to  of  which  I  was  a 
witness.  A  long  list  of  quotations  from  Elizabethan  writers, 
given  by  Bain,  will  show  the  usage  at  the  time.  That  flesh 
is  heir  to,  would  hardly  be  improved  by  the  expression  to 
which  flesh  is  heir.  "  Wretched  vagabonds,  eager  only  to 
find  some  obscure  retreat  to  die  in."  —  PRESCOTT.  "  A  force 
of  cultivated  opinion  for  him  to  appeal  to."  —  MATTHEW  ARNOLD. 
This  is  much  more  vivid  and  idiomatic  than  to  which  he  can 
appeal. 

This  construction  is  especially  adapted  to  colloquial  dis- 
course, and  an  idiomatic  style. 


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in  our  grammar  schools  for  some  time,  and  with  very  satisfactory,  results. 

"  The  pupils  readily  obtain  a  good  knowledge  of  the  history  of  our 
country  by  using  this  valuable  work  as  the  text-book." 

Another,  — 

"  We  like  your  Higginson's  '  History '  for  our  grammar  schools  very 
much.  It  meets  our  expectations  fully,  and  I  assure  you  our  anticipations 
were  not  light." 

It  is  in  use  in  thousands  of  schools  all  over  the  country.  It 
has  been  adopted  as  the  text-book  in  United-States  History  for 
all  the  Grammar  Schools  of  the  city  of  Boston.  It  has  also 
been  adopted  for  use  in  the  public  schools  in  NEW  YORK, 
BROOKLYN,  JERSEY  CITY,  NEWARK,  PATERSON,  PITTS- 
BURGH, and  cities  and  towns  in  every  part  of  the  country. 

Copies  furnished  for  examination  to  teachers  on  receipt  of 
price;  and,  if  the  book  is  adopted,  the  amount  will  be  refunded, 
or  book  may  be  returned  if  not  wanted. 

Send  for  specimen  pages,  gratis. 


LEE   AND   SHEPARD,  Publishers,  Boston 

18 


THE  FOLLOWING  BOOKS 

tend  to  create  a  love  for  Literature  as  a  means  of  Culture. 


UNDERWOOD'S 

HANDBOOKS  OF  ENGLISH  LITERATURE. 

BRITISH  AUTHORS. 

Intended  for  High  Schools,  Academies,  and  Colleges,  and  as  a  Companion 
and  Guide  for  Private  Students,  and  for  General  Reading.  By  FKANCIS 
H.  UNDERWOOD,  A.M.  Cloth,  $2.00  net. 

"I  take  great  pleasure  in  expressing  my  hearty  approval  of  it,  both  as  re- 
spects the  plan  and  the  execution.  It  seems  to  me  to  be  admirably  adapted 
to  meet  a  felt  want  in  the  department  of  education  to  which  it  belongs,  —  a 
department  of  the  highest  importance,  but  one  very  much  neglected  in  the 
seminaries,  and  even  in  the  higher  literary  institutions  of  our  country."  — 
Rev.  JOHN  WILSON,  A.M.,  President  of  Wesleyan  Female  College,  Wil- 
mington, Del. 

"  I  am  so  well  pleased  with  it,  that  I  have  just  put  it  into  the  hands  of  a 
class  of  thirty.  I  have  examined  with  care  every  book  of  this  class,  and  am 
satisfied  that  Professor  Underwood's  surpasses  all  similar  books  in  the 
beauty,  appositeness,  and  value  of  its  selections."  —  Professor  A.  B.  STARK, 
Principal  of  Corona  Academy,  Lebanon,  Tenn. 


AMERICAN  AUTHORS. 

Intended  for  the  use  of  High  Schools,  Academies,  and  Colleges,  and  as  a 
Companion  and  Guide  for  Private  Students  and  for  General  Readers.  By 
FRANCIS  H.  UNDERWOOD,  A.M.  8vo.  Cloth,  $2.00  net. 

"  The  present  volume,  containing  nearly  six  hundred  and  fifty  pages,  opens 
with  an  historical  introduction,  which  is  followed  by  an  alphabetical  list  of 
American  writers  not  included  in  the  collection.  Then  come  carefully 
selected  extracts  from  over  a  hundred  and  fifty  American  authors,  with 
short  biographical  and  critical  notices  prefixed  to  most  of  them. 

"  It  is  the  best  manual  of  the  kind  with  which  we  have  acquaintance:  in- 
deed, we  do  not  know  of  any  other  which  occupies  exactly  the  same  field. 
The  examination  of  its  well-hlled  pages  will  bring  to  many  a  new  revelation 
of  the  real  richness  and  variety  of  our  young  and  vigorous  literature."  — 
Boston  Journal. 

"  I  consider  '  Underwood's  American  Authors  '  the  best  book  of  the  kind. 
.  .  .  I  use  it  constantly  in  my  classes."  —  AUSTIN  GEORGE,  Professor  of 
English  Literature,  Kalamazoo  College,  Kalamazoo,  Mich. 


Special  Rates  for  Introduction. 


LEE  AND  SHEPARD,  Publishers,  Boston. 

21 


"  Must  certainly  be  of  great  use  to  teachers."  —  REV.  PHILLIPS  BROOKS,  D.D. 

J8®-  Particular  attention  of  School  Committees,  Teachers,  Su- 
perintendents of  Public  Schools,  and  all  interested  in 
Instruction,  is  called  to  MRS.  S.  B.  PERRY'S 

MANUAL  OF  BIBLE  SELECTIONS 

AND 

RESPONSIVE  EXERCISES, 

FOB  PUBLIC  AND  PRIVATE  SCHOOLS  OF  ALL  GRADES. 
Bound  in  cloth,  net,  60  cents. 


BIBLE  KESPCOTSIYE  EXEEOISES 
AJSTD   LESSONS, 

Comprising  the  first  hundred  pages  of  the  "  Bible  Manual,"  are 
issued  in  separate  form,  the  introductory  chapter  to  teachers 
being  the  same  in  both.  Bound,  cloth  backs,  30  cents  net. 


Rev.  Dr.  Peabody  of  Harvard  College  says,  — 
"  I  have  examined  Mrs.  Perry's  book  of  Scriptural  Selections  and  Respon- 
sive Exercises  from  the  Bible.  She  has,  in  my  opinion,  performed  the  work 
with  great  skill,  with  a  pure  devotional  taste,  and  with  a  fine  perception  — 
derived  from  her  own  long  experience  as  a  teacher  —  of  the  needs  of  teachers 
and  schools.  I  can  see  many  reasons  why  such  a  manual  is  much  to  be  pre- 
ferred to  the  entire  Bible  for  use  in  schools;  and  I  feel  confident  that  this  is, 
in  judicious  selection,  in  the  proportion  of  parts  and  subjects,  and  in  com- 
prehensiveness, fully  equal  to  the  best  works  of  the  kind  that  have  appeared. 
I  believe  that  it  would  receive  the  warm  approval  of  the  beet  teachers,  and 
friends  of  education." 

Rev.  Phillips  Brooks  says,  — 

"  It  must  certainly  be  of  great  use  to  teachers,  and  help  to  preserve,  with 
the  school  use  of  the  Bible,  that  interest  and  vividness  of  reverence  which 
alone  can  make  it  desirable  that  it  should  be  retained.  I  hope  that  her  work 
may  come  before  the  public,  and  be  found  useful." 

These  current  opinions  are  indorsed  by  clergymen  of  all  de- 
nominations, and  distinguished  educators  all  over  the  country. 
The  books  are  in  general  use  in  schools  and  academies. 

Copies  of  either  of  the  above  works  for  examination  sent  by  mail, 
postpaid,  on  receipt  of  the  advertised  price. 


Special  Terms  for  Introduction. 

Address 

LEE  AND  SHEPARD,  Publishers,  Boston. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 
BERKELEY 

THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 
STAMPED  BELOW 


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1921 


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UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


